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Indian J Anaesth 2020 Apr 28;64(4):341-343. Epub 2020 Mar 28.

Department of Anaesthesia and Critical Care, Indraprastha Apollo Hospital, New Delhi, India.

Rev Bras Anestesiol 2020 May 29. Epub 2020 May 29.

Baylor College of Medicine, Department of Anesthesiology, Houston, Texas, USA. Electronic address:

Background: The Argon Beam Coagulator (ABC) achieves hemostasis but has potential complications in the form of argon gas embolisms. Risk factors for embolisms have been identified and ABC manufacturers have developed guidelines for usage of the device to prevent embolism development.

Case Report: A 49 year-old male with history of recurrent cholangiocarcinoma status post resection presented for resection of a cutaneous biliary fistula. Read More

Am J Med Case Rep 2020 22;8(7):197-201. Epub 2020 Apr 22.

Department of Internal Medicine, State University of New York: Downstate Medical Center, Brooklyn, New York, United States-11203.

Patent foramen ovale (PFO) is a common clinical entity that is encountered in 20-34% of the general population. In most individuals, this anatomical variation is asymptomatic and goes undetected throughout their lives or is only incidentally discovered on cardiac investigations. In situations when the conduit is large enough and when the right atrial pressure exceeds the left atrial pressure, right to left interatrial flow may occur in these individuals. Read More

Perfusion 2020 May 19:267659120918471. Epub 2020 May 19.

Department of Cardiopulmonary Bypass, State Key Laboratory of Cardiovascular Medicine, Fuwai Hospital, National Center for Cardiovascular Disease, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, China.

Introduction: Air in extracorporeal membrane oxygenation circuit may lead to deleterious consequence.

Case Report: Three cases of air in extracorporeal membrane oxygenation were presented. Air was introduced from right jugular venous sheath during percutaneous septal repair, pulmonary artery catheter during intensive care unit, and sewing holes on atrial wall during surgery respectively. Read More

Radiol Case Rep 2020 Jun 28;15(6):680-682. Epub 2020 Apr 28.

McGill University Health Centre, Department of Diagnostic Radiology, Montreal General Hospital, 1650 Cedar Avenue, Montreal, QC H3G 1A4, Canada.

We report a case of pulmonary air embolism associated with proximal bland thrombus seen on computed tomography pulmonary angiography in a 49-year-old man, who developed acute hypoxia following removal of central venous catheter. Read More

Am J Med Case Rep 2020 14;8(5):119-122. Epub 2020 Mar 14.

Department of Internal Medicine, State University of New York: Downstate Medical Center, Brooklyn, New York, United States- 11203.

Iatrogenic air embolism is associated with significant morbidity and mortality. Retrograde cerebral venous air embolism is most frequently associated with manipulation of venous access most commonly from central venous catheters. The ascension of air to the cerebral circulation is possibly due to the low specific gravity of air compared to blood and the performance of procedures in the sitting position. Read More

World J Gastroenterol 2020 Apr;26(14):1628-1637

Department of Gastroenterology, Takatsuki General Hospital, Takatsuki 5691192, Japan.

Background: Hepatic portal venous gas (HPVG) generally indicates poor prognoses in patients with serious intestinal damage. Although surgical removal of the damaged portion is effective, some patients can recover with conservative treatments.

Aim: To establish an optimal treatment strategy for HPVG, we attempted to generate computed tomography (CT)-based criteria for determining surgical indication, and explored reliable prognostic factors in non-surgical cases. Read More

J Ultrason 2020 31;20(80):e67-e69. Epub 2020 Mar 31.

Department of Gastroenterology, Colentina Clinical Hospital , Bucharest , Romania ; Department of Internal Medicine, Carol Davila University of Medicine , Bucharest , Romania.

The paper describes the occurrence of a rare complication - portal and systemic venous air embolism - after endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography, related to the endoscopic procedure. It can be associated with the more frequently encountered post-endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography complications pancreatitis or cholangitis. However, it can also be noted with perforation. Read More

J Clin Neurosci 2020 Apr 18. Epub 2020 Apr 18.

Department of Neurosurgery, Hadassah-Hebrew University Medical Center, Jerusalem, Israel.

The retrosigmoid craniotomy is the standard approach to resect pathologies in the cerebellopontine angle (CPA). Following the craniotomy, the dura mater is opened in the inferolateral direction and the basal cistern arachnoid is dissected in order to release pressure by the outflow of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) from the foramen magnum, so that the CPA compartment can be approached with minimal retraction of the cerebellum. We report two patients, both with vestibular schwannoma, in whom preoperative magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) revealed unusual large oblique occipital sinus (OOS) draining laterally into the sigmoid sinus - jugular bulb junction. Read More

Thromb Res 2020 Jun 13;190:52-57. Epub 2020 Mar 13.

Department of Public Health and Infectious Diseases, University of Rome "La Sapienza", Rome, Italy.

Background: Short-term exposure to air pollution increases the risk of cardiovascular mortality and morbidity but little evidence is available on pollution effects on venous thromboembolism (VTE), a common vascular disease.

Methods: We conducted a case-crossover analysis of all urgent hospitalizations for deep vein thrombosis (DVT) or pulmonary embolism (PE) among patients >35 years during the period 2006 to 2017 in Rome (Italy). We examined whether 1) short-term exposure to particulate matter with aerodynamic diameter <2. Read More

Arch Ital Urol Androl 2020 Apr 7;92(1):55-57. Epub 2020 Apr 7.

Robotic Urology and Mini Invasive Urologic Surgery Unit, Abano Terme Hospital, Abano Terme (PD).

Objective: Holmium laser has demonstrated high efficacy in urethral disobstruction. Venous air embolism (VAE) is a rare complication of prostate surgery. Only two cases of venous air embolism (VAE) in patients submitted to HoLEP, have been described. Read More

Front Surg 2020 13;7. Epub 2020 Mar 13.

Department of Anesthesiology, Stony Brook Medicine, Stony Brook, NY, United States.

Surgery on posterior cranial fossa (PCF) and pineal region (PR) carries the risks of intraoperative trauma to the brainstem structures, blood loss, venous air embolism (VAE), cardiovascular instability, and other complications. Success in surgery, among other factors, depends on selecting the optimal patient position. Our objective was to find associations between patient positioning, incidence of intraoperative complications, neurological recovery, and the extent of surgery. Read More

Case Rep Cardiol 2020 1;2020:7914737. Epub 2020 Mar 1.

Department of Cardiovascular Medicine, The University of Kansas Health System, USA.

Endomyocardial biopsy (EMB) continues to remain the gold standard for surveillance of rejection post orthotropic heart transplantation (OHT). It can be performed under fluoroscopic or echocardiographic guidance. In the hands of an experienced operator, the complications of EMB are uncommon with <1% chance of any serious acute complications. Read More

Curr Opin Ophthalmol 2020 May;31(3):167-173

VitreoRetinal Surgery, PA, USA.

Purpose Of Review: The present article reviews the most common and most serious vision-threatening and life-threatening complications of vitreoretinal surgery.

Recent Findings: Serious complications after vitreroretinal surgery are rare. Endophthalmitis for example has recently been estimated to occur in 0. Read More

Am J Case Rep 2020 Mar 12;21:e920213. Epub 2020 Mar 12.

Department of Neurosurgery, Agia Sophia, Pediatric Hospital, Athens, Greece.

BACKGROUND Various factors have been implicated in the pathogenesis of infarction after posterior fossa surgery such as venous air embolism, patient's position (seated or prone), hyperflexion of the neck, excessive spinal cord traction, cervical canal stenosis, and systemic arterial hypotension. The main aim of this case report was to elucidate a case in which hydrogen peroxide was implicated in a major and systemic complication after a neurosurgical procedure. CASE REPORT We describe the case of a 5-year-old female patient who was admitted to our hospital because of a cerebellar hemispheric astrocytoma associated with obstructive hydrocephalus and accompanied by 2 syringomyelic cavities in the cervicothoracic portion of the spinal cord. Read More

Circ Arrhythm Electrophysiol 2020 Mar 12;13(3):e007917. Epub 2020 Feb 12.

Helmsley Electrophysiology Center, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, NY (M.K.T., W.W., S.R.D., V.Y.R.).

Background: Catheter ablation for atrial fibrillation (AF) using point-by-point radiofrequency energy or single-application one-shot balloons is either technically challenging or have limited ability to accommodate variable patient anatomy to achieve acute and durable pulmonary vein (PV) isolation. A novel ablation system employs low intensity collimated ultrasound (LICU)-guided anatomic mapping and robotic ablation to isolate PVs. In this first-in-human, single-center, multioperator trial, VALUE trial (VytronUS Ablation System for Treatment of Paroxysmal Atrial Fibrillation; NCT03639597) in patients with paroxysmal atrial fibrillation, this LICU system was evaluated to determine its safety, effectiveness in PV isolation, and freedom from recurrent atrial arrhythmias. Read More

Clin Radiol 2020 Jun 5;75(6):479.e1-479.e7. Epub 2020 Feb 5.

Department of Radiology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, PR China. Electronic address:

Aim: To evaluate whether preflushing before connecting a power injector to a patient's catheter reduces the incidence of venous air embolism (VAE) in contrast-enhanced computed tomography (CT) angiography (CTA).

Materials And Methods: With the approval from the local ethics committee, consecutive patients were divided randomly into a control group and a preflushing group and underwent CTA from June to November 2017. The control group underwent the conventional injection procedure. Read More

World Neurosurg 2020 May 31;137:e286-e290. Epub 2020 Jan 31.

Department of Neurosurgery, Tulane Center for Clinical Neurosciences, Tulane University School of Medicine, New Orleans, Louisiana, USA; Department of Anatomical Sciences, St. George's University, St. George's, Grenada; Department of Structural & Cellular Biology, Tulane University School of Medicine, New Orleans, Louisiana, USA; Department of Neurosurgery and Ochsner Neuroscience Institute, Ochsner Health System, New Orleans, Louisiana, USA.

Background: Bone cement augmentation with polymethylmethacrylate is a reliable method for stabilizing osteoporotic compression fractures and improving fixation of pedicle screws. However, cement extrusion into the vertebral venous system can result in pulmonary cement embolism. The goal of this anatomic study was to identify the relationship between the internal/external vertebral plexus and neighboring abdominal caval system. Read More

Medicine (Baltimore) 2020 Jan;99(3):e18595

Department of Anesthesiology, Qilu Hospital of Shandong University, Jinan, China.

Introduction: Acute pulmonary embolism (APE) during an operation is a very urgent occurrence, especially when the patient with hemodynamic instability. Generally, drugs are administered intravenously; however, these drugs have little effects under most circumstances. We present a case of successful resuscitation in a patient with endotracheal administration. Read More

Heart 2020 Jan;106(2):126-163

Centre for Cardiovascular Science, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK.

Clinical introductionA man in his 60s with no medical history presented with sudden-onset, severe interscapular pain. He was in circulatory shock with a blood pressure of 65/30 mm Hg, heart rate of 115 beats per minute, respiratory rate of 32 breaths per minute and a room air oxygen saturation of 89%. Examination demonstrated weak peripheral pulses, an elevated jugular venous pressure, faint dual heart sounds, no cardiac murmurs and bilateral lung crepitations. Read More

Zhonghua Wei Chang Wai Ke Za Zhi 2019 Dec;22(12):1110-1114

Department of Colorectal Tumor Surgery, Shengjing Hospital, China Medical University, Shenyang 110004, China.

Carbon dioxide embolization is a special complication of laparoscopic colorectal surgery. It is rarely reported in conventional laparoscopic colorectal surgery, and has not been well recognized by surgeons. Transanal total mesorectal excision (taTME) is an increasingly popular sphincter-preserving surgery for low rectal cancer in recent years. Read More

Medicine (Baltimore) 2019 Nov;98(45):e17940

Department of Diagnostic Radiology, Tohoku University Hospital, Sendai.

Venous air embolism (VAE) can be observed in the right heart system on contrast-enhanced computed tomography (CT), following injection of contrast media with a power injector system. Although most VAEs are mostly asymptomatic, they may result in paradoxical air embolism (PAE).To evaluate whether the incidence of VAE on coronary CT angiography is associated with the process of preparation of the intravenous access route. Read More

Cureus 2019 Sep 3;11(9):e5559. Epub 2019 Sep 3.

Anaesthesiology, University Hospital Galway, Galway, IRL.

Cerebral air embolism can complicate many medical procedures, including cardiac surgery, venous and arterial access, and laparoscopic surgery. It can be a devastating diagnosis and can cause a life-threatening compromise to the cardiac, respiratory, or cerebrovascular system. It is a rare complication of central venous vascular access manipulation. Read More

J Thorac Imaging 2020 May;35(3):W68-W74

Department of Radiology, Thomas Jefferson University Hospital, Philadelphia, PA.

Systemic arterial air embolism (SAAE) is a rare but potentially life-threatening condition that may occur when air enters into pulmonary veins or directly into the systemic circulation after pulmonary procedures (biopsy or resection) or penetrating trauma to the lung. While venous air embolism is commonly reported, arterial air embolism is rare. Even a minor injury to the chest along with positive-pressure ventilation can cause SAAE. Read More

Turk J Emerg Med 2019 Oct 17;19(4):157-159. Epub 2019 Sep 17.

Department of Emergency Medicine, University of Health Sciences, Bagcilar Training and Research Hospital, Istanbul, Turkey.

Introduction: Air embolism is a very rare condition which occurs when air or gas enter into the vascular system in either the venous or arterial route. It can occur following a variety of circumstances ranging from invasive procedures to either blunt or penetrating trauma conditions.

Case Presentation: We present a case of a 39-year-old male who had an air embolism in the pulmonary artery as a consequence of the injection of a contrast agent. Read More

Eur J Appl Physiol 2019 Dec 4;119(11-12):2421-2433. Epub 2019 Nov 4.

Institute of Physiology, CENIDE, University of Duisburg-Essen, University Hospital Essen, Hufelandstr. 55, 45122, Essen, Germany.

Decompression illness (DCI) is a complex clinical syndrome caused by supersaturation of respiratory gases in blood and tissues after abrupt reduction in ambient pressure. The resulting formation of gas bubbles combined with pulmonary barotrauma leads to venous and arterial gas embolism. Severity of DCI depends on the degree of direct tissue damage caused by growing bubbles or indirect cell injury by impaired oxygen transport, coagulopathy, endothelial dysfunction, and subsequent inflammatory processes. Read More

Undersea Hyperb Med 2019 Sep - Dec - Fourth Quarter;46(5):673-683

Depts. of Anesthesiology and Medicine, Center for Hyperbaric Medicine and Environmental Physiology, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, North Carolina U.S.

Gas can enter arteries (arterial gas embolism, AGE) due to alveolar-capillary disruption (caused by pulmonary over-pressurization, e.g. breath-hold ascent by divers) or veins (venous gas embolism, VGE) as a result of tissue bubble formation due to decompression (diving, altitude exposure) or during certain surgical procedures where capillary hydrostatic pressure at the incision site is subatmospheric. Read More

Undersea Hyperb Med 2019 Sep - Dec - Fourth Quarter;46(5):633-634

Department of Acute Critical Care Medicine, Shizuoka Hospital, Juntendo University, Izunokuni City, Shizuoka, Japan.

A 54-year-old man suffered a leg cramp while diving in the ocean at a depth of 20 meters. He began to surface, with his ascent based on a decompression table. He lost consciousness at the surface and was rescued by a nearby boat. Read More

Int J Legal Med 2020 May 8;134(3):1033-1036. Epub 2019 Oct 8.

McGill University Health Centre, Montreal, Canada.

Venous air embolism (VAE) is a rare cause of death for which special procedures are needed for autopsy diagnosis. The current one of choice was devised by Richter in 1905 to prevent introduction of gas into the right heart while opening the thorax. We could find no published data demonstrating that that this occurs during standard autopsy technique. Read More

Prehosp Emerg Care 2019 Oct 11:1-4. Epub 2019 Oct 11.

Venous air embolisms are rare but a cause of potentially life-threatening events with associated cardiovascular, pulmonary and neurologic effects. We report the first prehospital case of a venous air embolism in a 31-year-old male who became hemodynamically unstable after a peripheral intravenous catheter with unprimed tubing was placed by paramedics in the prehospital setting and diagnosed in the emergency department. We highlight the clinical presentation, diagnosis and emergency management of venous air embolisms. Read More

J Emerg Trauma Shock 2019 Jul-Sep;12(3):218-221

Department of General Surgery, Goa Medical College, Bambolim, Goa, India.

Missile embolism (ME) is a rare condition and was seen in 0.3% of gunshot wounds during the Vietnam War. It was first reported by Thomas Davis in 1834. Read More

J Anaesthesiol Clin Pharmacol 2019 Jul-Sep;35(3):417-420

Department of Anesthesiology and Critical Care, Safdarjung Hospital and VMMC, New Delhi, India.

Diving Hyperb Med 2019 Sep;49(3):152-153

Editor, Diving and Hyperbaric Medicine Journal.

There are few issues that generate as much confusion in diving medicine as the nomenclature of bubble-induced dysbaric disease. Prior to the late 1980s, the diagnosis 'decompression sickness' (DCS) was invoked for symptoms presumed to arise as a consequence of bubble formation from dissolved inert gas during or after decompression. These bubbles were known to form within tissues, and also to appear in the venous blood (presumably after forming in tissue capillaries). Read More

Indian J Crit Care Med 2019 Aug;23(8):382-383

Department of Medicine, ESIC Medical College and Hospital, Faridabad, Haryana, India.

Central vein catheterization is a commonly used technique in indoor patients. It is mainly used for venous access, allowing administration of drugs, fluids, chemotherapy, blood components. Central vein catheterisation may lead to many complication which includes bleeding, perforation of veins and hematoma formation, thrombosis, infections, bleeding, needle stick injury, air embolism, kinking or looping of the wire tip, breakage of a guidewire, etc. Read More

BMJ Case Rep 2019 Aug 28;12(8). Epub 2019 Aug 28.

Respiratory Unit, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia Medical Centre, Cheras, Malaysia.

Vascular air embolism (VAE) is a known complication of contrast-enhanced CT (CECT) scan occurring in venous or arterial circulation with a wide spectrum of presentations. We report a case of a 44-year-old woman with endometrial adenocarcinoma stage IVB complicated with liver abscess and pulmonary embolism who developed VAE following a routine CECT scan after the sixth cycle of chemotherapy. This was an incidental finding and the patient remained asymptomatic throughout. Read More

BMJ Case Rep 2019 Aug 28;12(8). Epub 2019 Aug 28.

Department of Surgical Intensive Care, Singapore General Hospital, Singapore.

Venous air embolism occurs when air is entrained into the venous system and travels to the right heart and pulmonary circulation, and commonly occurs as a complication in laparoscopic, neurosurgical and cardiac surgeries. We present a case of abnormal end-tidal carbon dioxide capnography tracing in the lateral position in a laparoscopic major liver procedure and discuss the potential novel use of this as a red flag in aiding the medical practitioner to diagnose air embolism. Read More

J Neuroophthalmol 2019 09;39(3):437-438

Department of Ophthalmology, Royal Hobart Hospital, Tasmania, Australia Department of Radiology, Royal Hobart Hospital, Tasmania, Australia Department of Ophthalmology, Royal Hobart Hospital, Hobart, Australia Menzies Research Institute, University of Tasmania, Hobart, Australia.

Proc (Bayl Univ Med Cent) 2019 Jul 3;32(3):433-434. Epub 2019 Jun 3.

Department of Internal Medicine, Texas Tech University Health Sciences CenterLubbockTexas.

Air embolism is a rare, often misdiagnosed, potentially fatal condition. It is most frequently associated with invasive vascular procedures and mechanical ventilation. Air emboli developing from peripheral intravenous lines are uncommon. Read More

Br J Haematol 2020 Mar 2;188(6):838-843. Epub 2019 Aug 2.

King's College Hospital NHS Trust, London, UK.

Travel appears to be a weak risk factor for venous thromboembolism (VTE) and is more relevant for passengers with additional VTE risk factors. The association is not limited to air travel and is related to duration of travel. Life-threatening pulmonary embolism (PE) is rare. Read More

World Neurosurg 2019 Nov 30;131:38-42. Epub 2019 Jul 30.

Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Akita University Graduate School of Medicine, Akita, Japan.

Background: Venous air embolism (VAE) is a rare but, frequently, fatal complication that can occur during surgery. Several reported studies have shown visible bubbling of air at the surgical site as the first clinical indication of VAE-induced cardiovascular collapse during prone-position spine surgery. However, to the best of our knowledge, video imaging of this phenomenon has not been previously reported. Read More

J Invasive Cardiol 2019 Aug;31(8):E264

Department of Cardiology, Institute of Post Graduate Medical Education & Research and SSKM Hospital, Kolkata-20, India.

Coronary artery air embolism can be fatal if not proficiently managed. Vasospasm is said to be protective in that it breaks the larger air bubbles, as occurred in the present case. Read More

Eur J Anaesthesiol 2019 09;36(9):712-713

From the Intensive Care Unit 4131, Abdominalcenteret, Copenhagen University Hospital, Rigshospitalet, Copenhagen (KL, MVA), and the Department of Anaesthesiology I, Copenhagen University Hospital, Herlev, Denmark (KL, MVA).

Turk J Emerg Med 2019 Jul 26;19(3):117-119. Epub 2019 Jun 26.

Department of Anaesthesia and Critical Care, IMS & SUM Hospital, Bhubaneswar, 751003, India.

Introduction: Venous air embolism is a catastrophic complication that can result in sudden cardiac arrest and death. Massive air embolism has been reported with central venous catheter through the internal jugular and subclavian veins. Though external jugular vein is a potential site of an air embolism to cardiac chambers and subsequently to vital organs such as brain, heart and lungs but has not been reported yet in literature. Read More

Rev Neurol 2019 Aug;69(3):109-112

Complejo Hospitalario Universitario de Albacete, Albacete, Espana.

Introduction: An arterial gas embolism is defined as the presence of air in the arterial circulation. This is an extremely rare cause of stroke that has been described in a multitude of clinical scenarios, generally related to iatrogenic processes. A clinical case is reported in which the arterial gas embolism occurred after a traumatic brain injury, and the most relevant aspects of diagnosis and aetiopathogenesis are reviewed. Read More

Cureus 2019 Apr 1;11(4):e4355. Epub 2019 Apr 1.

Neurosurgery, Penn State Health Milton S. Hershey Medical Center, Hershey, USA.

Craniotomy in the sitting position entails risk for venous air embolism (VAE). A 50-year-old male underwent pineal region mass resection through a sitting position craniotomy. Intraoperative transesophageal echocardiography confirmed the absence of intracardiac shunt. Read More

Int J Artif Organs 2019 Dec 13;42(12):704-710. Epub 2019 Jun 13.

Clinical Perfusion, University Hospitals Plymouth NHS Trust, Plymouth, UK.

Introduction: Recent advances to make cardiopulmonary bypass more physiological include the use of kinetic-assisted venous drainage but without a venous reservoir. Despite manipulation of intravascular volume and patient positioning, arterial flow is frequently reduced. Negative venous line pressures can be generated, which may elicit gaseous microemboli. Read More

Dis Colon Rectum 2019 07;62(7):794-801

Department of Surgery, Oncologic and Lower GI Surgery, Amsterdam University Medical Centers, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, the Netherlands.

Background: Carbon dioxide embolus has been reported as a rare but clinically important risk associated with transanal total mesorectal excision surgery. To date, there exists limited data describing the incidence, risk factors, and management of carbon dioxide embolus in transanal total mesorectal excision.

Objective: This study aimed to obtain data from the transanal total mesorectal excision registries to identify trends and potential risk factors for carbon dioxide embolus specific to this surgical technique. Read More

Intern Med 2019 Oct 7;58(19):2857-2859. Epub 2019 Jun 7.

Department of Neurology, Kamagaya General Hospital, Japan.

This manuscript describes the first known case of a patient with multiple system atrophy whose parasympathetic dominant disturbance might have been associated with the relative constriction of the superior mesenteric artery, leading to nonocclusive mesenteric ischemia and subsequent portomesenteric venous gas with pneumatosis intestinalis on abdominal computed tomography approaching death. Read More

Diving Hyperb Med 2019 06;49(2):77-78

Consultant Cardiologist, Royal Stoke University Hospital, Stoke-on-Trent, ST4 6QG, UK,

In this issue, Anderson and colleagues report follow-up of divers who were found to have a persistent (patent) foramen ovale (PFO) or, in eleven cases, an atrial septal defect (ASD). In most divers diagnosis followed an episode of decompression illness (DCI). The efficacy of closure of the PFO/ASD in preventing future DCI was compared with conservative diving. Read More