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Med Leg J 2020 Jun 3:25817220923670. Epub 2020 Jun 3.

Dipartimento di Scienze Biomediche per la Salute - Sezione di Medicina Legale e delle Assicurazioni - Università degli Studi di Milano, Milano, Italy.

The term identifies the infliction of massive injuries that greatly exceed those needed to kill the victim both in number and intensity. We present the case of a Peruvian transsexual, who was choked and hit by 11 sharp-force wounds all in the facial area. The scanning electron microscopy with energy dispersion X-ray analysis carried out on the skin of the facial wounds proved crucial in proving that two different point-and-edge weapons were used, following the finding of metallic micro-traces of heterogeneous composition. Read More

Forensic Sci Int 2020 Jul 25;312:110305. Epub 2020 Apr 25.

Research Institute for Sport and Exercise, University of Canberra, Canberra, ACT, Australia.

Forensic textile damage examinations are commonly requested in cases such as stabbings. These requests often involve the testing of knives or other weapons submitted to determine if they could have caused the damage to the evidential garment. Currently a forensic practitioner conducts this testing by manually performing the stabbing action. Read More

Forensic Sci Med Pathol 2020 May 4. Epub 2020 May 4.

Department of Forensic Medicine, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Frederik V's vej 11, 2100, Copenhagen, Denmark.

Since the 1990s, there has been a reduction in the homicide rate in Denmark and other Western countries. Our hypothesis is that part of the decrease in the sharp force homicide rate can be explained by better and faster medical treatment over time, and we explore this via stab wound homicides, the largest group of homicides in Denmark. To investigate our hypothesis we undertook an epidemiological study of 428 stab wound homicides in Denmark 1992-2016 based on autopsy reports with registration of stab wounds, quantification of injury severity, treatment intensity and survival time. Read More

Malays J Pathol 2020 Apr;42(1):65-70

Universiti Teknologi MARA, Faculty of Medicine, Sungai Buloh Campus, Selangor, Malaysia.

Introduction: Homicide is the act of killing one human being by another, encompassing death as a result of criminal act including justifiable homicide such as judicial killing and self-defence. This study aimed to ascertain the epidemiology and patterns of injury of homicide victims.

Materials And Methods: We reviewed records of medico-legal autopsy cases performed at the Department of Forensic Medicine, Hospital Sungai Buloh, for a period of five years, from January 2012 until December 2016. Read More

J Family Med Prim Care 2020 Feb 28;9(2):807-811. Epub 2020 Feb 28.

Department of Emergency Medicine, Christian Medical College, Vellore, Tamil Nadu, India.

Background: With the increasing focus on setting up emergency care centers in railway stations across India by the government, there are no baseline data in India, or the world, about the profile of patients presenting with emergencies on the trains and at the railway stations.

Materials And Methods: This retrospective study included all people who presented with any medical emergency to the Emergency Care Center (ECC), Katpadi Railway Station in South India, between January 2017 and December 2017. Details were obtained from the register maintained by the emergency nurses stationed at the ECC. Read More

Neurosci Lett 2020 May 31;727:134937. Epub 2020 Mar 31.

Department of Pediatrics, West China Second University Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, 610041, Sichuan, China; Key Laboratory of Obstetric & Gynecologic and Pediatric Diseases and Birth Defects of Ministry of Education, Sichuan University, Chengdu, 610041, Sichuan, China. Electronic address:

Background: Spinal cord injury (SCI) is one of the most serious neurological disorders and is characterized by high morbidity and disability. Unfortunately, there is a lack of effective treatment. Recently, the micro RNA, miR-384-5p, was reported to play a significant role in cell survival in response to different insults. Read More

Forensic Sci Int 2020 Feb 19;307:110123. Epub 2019 Dec 19.

Department of Forensic Science, Laurentian University, Sudbury, Ontario, P3E 2C6, Canada.

Forensic investigators commonly interpret bone fracture patterns to estimate the force required to generate that trauma. Unfortunately, these estimates are limited to qualitative values such as "mild", "moderate" or "extreme" force. This work presents a new experimental forensic device developed to simulate blunt- and sharp-force trauma injuries, while recording the forces and velocities involved, so that a more quantitative relationship between force and trauma can be established. Read More

Forensic Sci Int 2020 Jan 29;306:110097. Epub 2019 Nov 29.

Textile Engineering Faculty, Amirkabir University of Technology (Tehran Polytechnic), Tehran, Iran. Electronic address:

In this study, the penetration procedure of sharp objects with various geometries in the fabric was considered. To this end, five objects consisted of two single edged knives, a double edged knife and two spikes were employed. Tests were performed on fabrics with different applications such as shirting, worsted, elastic denim, artificial leather and tarpaulin. Read More

J Forensic Sci 2020 May 9;65(3):999-1003. Epub 2019 Dec 9.

Department of Forensic Medicine, University Hospital Ostrava, CZ-708 52, Ostrava, Czech Republic.

This paper deals with a fatal stab wound suffered by a 29-year-old man and nonfatal injuries of 35-year-old and 67-year-old saw operators. Rip saw is a machine that is specially designed for making a rip cut, a cut made parallel to the direction of the wood grain. Rip-saw-related injuries mostly occur when a person is struck by the cutting material, which usually involves splinters of irregular shape and diameter. Read More

J Forensic Sci 2020 May 20;65(3):833-839. Epub 2019 Nov 20.

Department of Forensic Medicine, University of Southern Denmark, J. B. Winsloews Vej 17, DK-5000, Odense C, Denmark.

Sharp force trauma is a common homicide method. The weapon is typically a knife, which is easily accessible and does not require special skills. We have analyzed all 471 sharp force homicides in Denmark during 1992-2016 with special focus on aspects that are relevant to forensic pathologists, including the distribution of wounds and organ injuries. Read More

Skelet Muscle 2019 11 6;9(1):27. Epub 2019 Nov 6.

Department of Medical Pharmacology and Physiology, University of Missouri, MA415 Medical Sciences Building, 1 Hospital Drive, Columbia, MO, 65212, USA.

Background: Local injection of BaCl is an established model of acute injury to study the regeneration of skeletal muscle. However, the mechanism by which BaCl causes muscle injury is unresolved. Because Ba inhibits K channels, we hypothesized that BaCl induces myofiber depolarization leading to Ca overload, proteolysis, and membrane disruption. Read More

S Afr Med J 2019 Sep 30;109(10):792-800. Epub 2019 Sep 30.

Department of Forensic Medicine, School of Medicine, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Pretoria, South Africa.

Background: South Africa has one of the highest rates of interpersonal violence (IPV), in all its forms, in the world. Incidents of assault are largely under-reported and place an immense burden on the healthcare, fiscal and judicial systems. The first contact a victim of IPV has with a medical practitioner may be the only opportunity to identify, record and preserve valuable evidence, as evidence not captured on this occasion may be lost forever. Read More

Int J Paleopathol 2019 12 10;27:66-79. Epub 2019 Oct 10.

School of Humanities, Nanyang Technological University, 48 Nanyang Avenue, Singapore 639818. Electronic address:

This research explores how social and environmental factors may have contributed to conflict during the early Bronze Age in Northwest China by analyzing violent trauma on human skeletal remains from a cemetery of the Qijia culture (2300-1500 BCE). The Qijia culture existed during a period of dramatic social, technological, and environmental change, though minimal research has been conducted on how these factors may have contributed to violence within the area of the Qijia and other contemporaneous material cultures. An osteological assessment was conducted on 361 individuals (n = 241 adults, n = 120 non-adults) that were excavated from the Mogou site, Lintan County, Gansu, China. Read More

JAMA Netw Open 2019 10 2;2(10):e1912850. Epub 2019 Oct 2.

Firearm Injury and Policy Research Program, Harborview Injury Prevention and Research Center, University of Washington, Seattle.

Importance: Pediatric firearm injuries are a serious and growing public health problem, constituting the second leading cause of death in children and adolescents in the United States. Firearm injuries have a high case fatality, but knowledge is limited to date regarding their injury severity and health care utilization burden compared with those of other penetrating injuries, especially among children with critical injury.

Objective: To describe and compare the resource utilization, injury severity, and short-term clinical outcomes associated with pediatric firearm injuries and other penetrating trauma. Read More

Int J Paleopathol 2019 12 24;27:46-55. Epub 2019 Sep 24.

Institute for Mummy Studies, Eurac research, Viale Druso 1, 39100 Bolzano, Italy. Electronic address:

Objective: To provide a detailed analysis and interpretation of cranial and postcranial lesions noted on an early medieval skeleton from the Italian Alps.

Materials: Individual (SK63) was buried within the early Christian church (5-8 centuries AD) of Säben-Sabiona in South Tyrol (Italy).

Methods: The skeleton underwent macroscopic, microscopic and metric analyses. Read More

Niger J Physiol Sci 2019 06 30;34(1):107-113. Epub 2019 Jun 30.

Department of Anatomy, College of Medicine, University of Ibadan, Ibadan,.

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is a complex process resulting into structural brain damage and functional deficits as a result of an external mechanical force. This study aimed to investigate the possible ameliorative effect of Raphia hookeri ethanol extract (RHEE) on induced acute traumatic brain injury in rats. The choice of the plant was based on its reported anti-oxidative property. Read More

J Sex Med 2019 10 22;16(10):1547-1556. Epub 2019 Aug 22.

Institute of Legal Medicine at University Hospital, Goethe University, Frankfurt, Germany.

Introduction: Non-natural deaths associated with sexual activity may occur either with or without the involvement of other persons.

Aim: The present study provides an overview of cases of non-natural death related to sexual activities as well as recommendations of how to handle these cases and to identify potentially dangerous pleasure-enhancing techniques.

Methods: This medicolegal, postmortem, retrospective, and prospective study is based on data of autopsies performed at the Institute of Legal Medicine at University Hospital, Goethe University, Frankfurt, Germany. Read More

Forensic Sci Int 2019 Sep 27;302:109893. Epub 2019 Jul 27.

Department of Anthropology, University of Maine, Orono ME, United States. Electronic address:

Differentiating traumatic injuries in bone from taphonomic damage in the postmortem period is a complex process requiring a systematic approach. Trauma by definition occurs while the individual is still living, but bone characteristics usually do not allow delineation of the moment of death. Thus, the anthropologist seeks characteristics that will associate a skeletal defect with the perimortem period, at or about the time of death. Read More

J Forensic Sci 2020 Jan 12;65(1):103-111. Epub 2019 Aug 12.

Department of Anatomic, Histological, Forensic and Orthopedic Science, University of Rome "Sapienza", viale Regina Elena 336, 00161, Rome, Italy.

This study analyzes postmortem records from 260 homicide cases autopsied by the Department of Forensic Medicine in Rome from 2000 to 2014. The victims were mainly males (74%) and young (61% aged from 21 to 50 years). Although the victims were mostly Italians, the number of foreign victims (33%) has increased since 1990, primarily due to immigration. Read More

Acad Forensic Pathol 2018 Jun 6;8(2):184-191. Epub 2018 Jun 6.

The forensic pathologist is an integral part of the trauma surgery team. Trauma surgeons depend on autopsy descriptions for accurate measurement of the severity of trauma and determination of the chance of mortality. The outcome of liver injury improved greatly during the 20th century, primarily due to improved diagnostic and management techniques. Read More

Vet Surg 2019 Oct 21;48(7):1229-1236. Epub 2019 Jun 21.

Veterinary Administration, College of Veterinary Medicine, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana.

Objective: To evaluate the effect of combining a continuous epitendinous suture with three-loop pulley (3LP) and locking-loop (LL) core patterns for flexor tendon repair.

Study Design: Ex vivo biomechanical study.

Sample Population: Seventy-two cadaveric superficial digital flexor musculotendon (SDFT) units. Read More

Dis Aquat Organ 2019 Jun;135(1):1-31

International Fund for Animal Welfare, Yarmouth Port, MA 02675, USA Addresses for other authors are given in the supplements at www.int-res.com/articles/suppl/d135p001_supp.pdf.

Seventy mortalities of North Atlantic right whales Eubalaena glacialis (NARW) were documented between 2003 and 2018 from Florida, USA, to the Gulf of St. Lawrence, Canada. These included 29 adults, 14 juveniles, 10 calves, and 17 of unknown age class. Read More

Sud Med Ekspert 2019 ;62(2):11-14

Russian Centre of Forensic Medical Expertise, Ministry of Health of the Russia, Moscow, Russia, 125284.

The objective of the present work was to analyze the results and efficiency of forensic medical expertises and investigations of the cases of the fatal mechanical injury in Russia carried out during the period from 2003 to 2017. The analysis included the data on the structure and personnel scheduling charts of the departments of forensic medical expertise of the corpses in the state-governed forensic medical expertise institutions. It was shown that the structure of the fatal mechanical injury differs in different regions of the country: some of them are characterized by the predominance of blunt traumas whereas road traffic injuries prevail in others. Read More

Forensic Sci Int 2019 Aug 4;301:118-128. Epub 2019 May 4.

Institut Universitaire d'Anthropologie médico-légale, Faculté de médecine, 28 avenue de Valombrose, 06107, Nice Cedex 2, France; CEPAM (UMR CNRS 7264), 24 Avenue des Diables Bleus, 06357 Nice Cedex 4, France.

Forensic pathology and forensic anthropology are inherently related fields. The observations made during the autopsy and the conclusions from the anthropological analysis highlight the complementarities between the two approaches. In this review, gunshot wounds, sharp force injuries, chop wounds, blunt trauma, burned bodies, mechanical asphyxia and dismemberment will be analyzed from both perspectives. Read More

Sports Med 2019 Aug;49(8):1217-1232

University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC, USA.

Background: Sport activities can account for up to one-third of all orofacial injuries. Mouthguards (MGs) have been proposed as a way to reduce these injuries.

Objectives: To present a systematic review and meta-analysis of the effectiveness of MGs for the prevention of sports-related orofacial injuries and concussions. Read More

Forensic Sci Int 2019 Jul 8;300:145-150. Epub 2019 May 8.

Department of Legal Medicine, University of Hamburg-Eppendorf, Germany. Electronic address:

Cases of corpse dismemberment are rare, but occur most frequently in urban agglomerations. A distinction is made between defensive and offensive corpse dismemberment. This systematic review retrospectively assesses the phenomenology of 51 cases of corpse dismemberment (30 defensive and 21 offensive), which occurred in a period of 57 years and were subject to medico-legal autopsies performed at the Departement of Legal Medicine in Hamburg, Germany. Read More

Forensic Sci Int 2019 Jun 26;299:119-127. Epub 2019 Mar 26.

Office of the Chief Medical Examiner, 401 E Street, Washington, DC, 20024, United States. Electronic address:

Sharp force trauma (SFT) in bone and cartilage has been studied extensively. This literature review summarizes knife and saw mark research. Researchers have documented several features of cut surfaces and successfully associated them with various tool characteristics. Read More

Forensic Sci Int 2019 Jun 24;299:80-88. Epub 2019 Mar 24.

Forensic Anthropology Center, Texas State University, 601 University Dr, San Marcos, TX, 78666, United States. Electronic address:

Dental and maxillofacial trauma analysis in the forensic context, includes assessment of both living and deceased persons. It is required in all cases where human abuse is suspected and where signs of skeletal trauma are detected in human remains. Skeletal trauma refers to the damage inflicted to bone, teeth and other hard tissues. Read More

Int J Legal Med 2019 Sep 21;133(5):1429-1435. Epub 2019 Feb 21.

Zurich Institute of Forensic Medicine, Department of Forensic Medicine and Imaging, University of Zurich, Winterthurerstrasse 190/52, CH-8057, Zurich, Switzerland.

Blows with axes, machetes or blunt objects such as baseball bats, truncheons, etc. are often parried, resulting in typical parry injuries, or so-called nightstick fractures to the ulna. In this study, we sought to assess the impact energy required to break the ulna in such parry incidents in an experimental setting using semisynthetic and fully synthetic models. Read More

Clin Biomech (Bristol, Avon) 2019 03 14;63:10-15. Epub 2019 Feb 14.

Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Gangnam Sacred Heart Hospital, Hallym University School of Medicine, Seoul, Republic of Korea. Electronic address:

Background: A stress-riser fracture develops when stress in an object is higher than that in the surrounding material. The aim of this retrospective study was to evaluate all consecutive femoral stress-riser fractures during a period of >10 years and to verify high-risk factors by using mechanical analysis.

Methods: Forty clinical fractures caused by local stress concentration in the femoral cortical bone were included. Read More

J Forensic Sci 2019 Jul 1;64(4):1012-1016. Epub 2019 Feb 1.

Forensic Operations, Office of Chief Medical Examiner, 421 East 26th Street, New York, NY, 10016.

A review of New York City dismemberment cases occurring between 1996 and 2017 was conducted, which resulted in a total of 55 dismembered decedents in a 22-year period. Annual trends indicate an average of 2.5 dismembered decedents. Read More

Forensic Sci Int 2019 Mar 21;296:53-56. Epub 2019 Jan 21.

Department of Forensic Medicine, University of Göttingen, Robert-Koch-Straße 40, 37075, Göttingen, Germany.

Killings of human beings involving animals have rarely been described in the forensic literature. In the present case, the decapitated corpse of a woman as well as the decapitated, castrated and partially disemboweled corpse of a dog were found together. Both bodies also exhibited analogous, distributed massive sharp-force traumas. Read More

J Craniomaxillofac Surg 2019 Mar 5;47(3):431-437. Epub 2018 Dec 5.

Bezmialem Vakif University, Faculty of Dentistry, Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, Adnan Menderes Bulvarı (Vatan Cd.), 34093, Fatih, Istanbul, Turkey.

In this study, we aimed to measure the stresses both on the pterygoid plates and the cranial base during the down-fracture and at the time of pterygomaxillary osteotomy by using the finite element analysis method to have an idea about the possible causes of complications. Three different surgical approaches were applied to the obtained models. In the Model 1, Le Fort I cuts without pterygomaxillary separation was applied. Read More

Asia Pac J Public Health 2019 01 31;31(1):39-50. Epub 2018 Dec 31.

1 Macquarie University, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia.

Objective: Assault is a global public health issue that affects individuals of all ages. This study describes the epidemiological profile of assault-related hospitalization and health outcomes across different age groups in New South Wales, Australia.

Methods: Population-based linked hospitalization and mortality data from January 1, 2010, to June 30, 2014, were used to identify assault-related hospitalizations. Read More

Clin Biomech (Bristol, Avon) 2019 01 22;61:58-63. Epub 2018 Nov 22.

State Key Laboratory for Manufacturing System Engineering, School of Mechanical Engineering, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an 710054, Shaanxi, China; Institute of Medical and Biological Engineering, School of Mechanical Engineering, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, UK; Tribology Research Institute, School of Mechanical Engineering, Southwest Jiaotong University, Chengdu 610031, China.

Background: Meniscectomy is likely to result in an increase of joint loading on articular cartilage and initiates cartilage damages. However, the induced alterations in knee contact mechanics and secondary kinematics after the meniscal removal are still unclear during a walking gait. In this study, the role of menisci on the knee contact mechanics and secondary kinematics were investigated during a walking simulation. Read More

Forensic Sci Int 2018 Dec 28;293:e1-e4. Epub 2018 Oct 28.

Institute of Pathology, Faculty of Medicine, Slovak Medical University and Cytopathos Ltd., Limbova 12, 833 03 Bratislava, Slovakia. Electronic address:

A case of long-term continual self-inflicted penetrating craniocerebral injury to a 59-year-old man with a fatal outcome is reported. The man suffered from paranoid psychosis and alcohol dependence. Over five months, he continually scalped the skin and subcutaneous tissue of his head with a knife until he perforated the skull and dura mater and injured his brain. Read More

Int J Legal Med 2019 Mar 18;133(2):521-528. Epub 2018 Oct 18.

Aix Marseille Univ, CNRS, EFS, ADES, Marseille, France.

Identifying tool mark and involved weapon in sharp force trauma is essential to understanding the circumstances of death. But accuracy and reliability of such expert testimony remains unknown, and validation studies are rare in forensic literature. That is why, we conducted an experiment in order to determine error rates and predictive values on identifying the right implement through different types of knife-inflicted trauma. Read More

Forensic Sci Int 2019 Jun 3;299:235-237. Epub 2018 Sep 3.

Department of Anthropology, National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. USA. Electronic address:

This special issue of Forensic Science International presents diverse perspectives and detailed information on the many factors involved in trauma analysis of the skeleton. Topics covered include nomenclature, antemortem timing, post-mortem loss of plasticity, terminal ballistic/gunshot trauma, sharp force trauma, heat-induced fracture, non-metric traits and pseudo-trauma, taphonomic alterations, microscopic evidence for hemorrhage, imaging of perimortem trauma, dental trauma and linkages between soft and hard tissue. Read More

Int J Paleopathol 2019 03 20;24:7-18. Epub 2018 Sep 20.

Memorial University of Newfoundland, Department of Archaeology, Queen's College, 210 Prince Philip Drive, St. John's NL A1B 3R6, Canada; McMaster University, Department of Anthropology, Chester New Hall, 1280 Main Street West, Hamilton, ON L8S 4L8, Canada. Electronic address:

Investigating injury recidivism and individuals with multiple injuries is an area of growing interest in bioarchaeology. Differentiating between whether an individual sustained multiple injuries, represented by antemortem healed fractures, in one incident or in multiple incidents over the life course, is a major challenge. This research analyzed the skeletal remains of 721 adults (402 males, 319 females) from five post-medieval cemeteries from London, UK, known to include working class individuals for evidence of skeletal trauma - fractures, myositis ossificans, subluxations/dislocations, blunt force trauma, and sharp force trauma. Read More

Anthropol Anz 2018 Dec;75(4):291-296

Section of Forensic Pathology, Department of Forensic Medicine, University of Copenhagen, Denmark.

This study presents and discusses the differential diagnosis of a unique case of facial trauma. The adult male skull was excavated in 1948 from Uglemose (Owl Bog) outside of Birket, on the island of Lolland (Denmark). Carbon-14 samples from an adult tibia excavated with the skull dates to the end of the Danish Bronze Age and transition period into the pre-Roman Iron Age. Read More

Oper Orthop Traumatol 2018 Dec 7;30(6):457-468. Epub 2018 Sep 7.

Klinik und Poliklinik für Orthopädie, Physikalische Medizin und Rehabilitation, Klinikum der Universität München, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität, München, Deutschland.

Objective: The dysplastic acetabulum is shifted three-dimensionally outwards and forwards.

Indications: Symptomatic residual hip dysplasias and hip subluxations in skeletally mature patients up to the age of 50 years. Sharp's acetabular up to 60°, as an exception above 60°. Read More

Am J Forensic Med Pathol 2018 Dec;39(4):341-344

From the Department of Pathology at the University of Michigan, Ann Arbor; and Wayne County Medical Examiner's Office, Detroit, MI.

Instruments that create stab wounds are required to possess tips of sufficient strength and rigidity to breach the integrity of the skin. Knives, the most common weapons used to create stab wounds, have cutting edges that cleave the skin, leaving unabraded margins. On rare occasions, blunt objects are driven with sufficient force to pierce the skin and become impaled within the body. Read More

J Forensic Leg Med 2018 Oct 17;59:4-7. Epub 2018 Jul 17.

Adelaide Medical School, The University of Adelaide, Frome Rd, Adelaide, Australia; Forensic Science SA, 21 Divett Place, Adelaide, Australia. Electronic address:

A retrospective study was undertaken at Forensic Science South Australia of all homicides in individuals aged <18 years from January 1970 to December 2014. 166 cases were identified (M:F = 1.5:1). Read More

Int J Paleopathol 2018 09 7;22:66-77. Epub 2018 Jun 7.

Department of Archaeology, Durham University, South Road, DH13LE, Durham, UK.

On the 21-22 of May1809 Napoleon Bonaparte saw his first major defeat on land at the Battle of Aspern, just north-east of Vienna. Of the 167,000 soldiers who fought for the French and Austrian armies, a total of 55,000 died on the battlefield. Salvage excavations prior to the construction of large urban development project (2008-2016) have revealed several burial sites related to the Battle of Aspern. Read More

Med Leg J 2018 05 25;86(4):213-215. Epub 2018 May 25.

Department of Health Promotion, Section of Legal Medicine, University of Palermo, Palermo, Italy.

The dismemberment of a corpse is comparatively rare in forensic medicine and usually performed with different types of sharp tools. The victim is always the victim of a homicide. Dismemberment usually occurs where the killing took place without prior planning by the perpetrator. Read More