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Int J Environ Res Public Health 2019 Mar 28;16(7). Epub 2019 Mar 28.

Regional Reference Laboratory of Clinical and Environmental Surveillance of Legionellosis, Branch of Messina, Department of Biomedical and Dental Sciences and Morphofunctional Imaging, University of Messina, Torre Biologica 3p, AOU 'G. Martino, Via C. Valeria, s.n.c., 98125 Messina, Italy.

Legionnaires' disease is normally acquired by inhalation of legionellae from a contaminated environmental source. Water systems of large and old buildings, such as hospitals, can be contaminated with legionellae and therefore represent a potential risk for the hospital population. In this study, we demonstrated the constant presence of in water samples from the water system of a large university hospital in Messina (Sicily, Italy) consisting of 11 separate pavilions during a period of 15 years (2004⁻2018). Read More

Cien Saude Colet 2019 Mar;24(3):793-804

Hospital General de Alicante. Alicante Elche España.

The scope of this paper is to review the available scientific literature about the effects on health of occupational exposure to Legionella spp. A systematic review of the scientific literature retrieved from the MEDLINE (via PubMed), ISI-Web of Science (Institute for Scientific Information), Cochrane Library, LILCAS and SCOPUS databases through February 2015 was conducted. The key words used were ««Legionnaires' Disease» «Legionellosis» «Occupational Exposure» «Occupational Diseases». Read More

Infect Drug Resist 2019 1;12:529-534. Epub 2019 Mar 1.

Department of Pathobiology, School of Veterinary, University of Shahid Chamran, Ahvaz, Iran.

Background: Legionnaires' disease is an important public health problem that can cause substantial mortality and morbidity. Legionnaires' disease-risk estimation may be compromised by uncertainties in -detection methods. The aim of this study was the detection of in respiratory specimens of hospitalized patients with respiratory symptoms by culture, PCR, and loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) methods. Read More

Cell Host Microbe 2019 Mar 28;25(3):454-462.e6. Epub 2019 Feb 28.

Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA; George Williams Hooper Foundation, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA. Electronic address:

Legionella pneumophila (L.p.), the microbe responsible for Legionnaires' disease, secretes ∼300 bacterial proteins into the host cell cytosol. Read More

mSphere 2019 02 27;4(1). Epub 2019 Feb 27.

Respiratory Diseases Branch, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia, USA

Between 2000 and 2017, a total of 236 species isolates from Arizona were submitted to the CDC for reference testing. Most of these isolates were recovered from bronchoalveolar lavage specimens. Although the incidence of legionellosis in Arizona is less than the overall U. Read More

Pathogens 2019 Feb 26;8(1). Epub 2019 Feb 26.

College of Science and Engineering, Flinders University, GPO Box 2100, Adelaide 5001, Australia.

Legionnaires' disease is a potentially fatal pneumonia like infection caused by inhalation or aspiration of water particles contaminated with pathogenic spp. Household showers have been identified as a potential source of sporadic, community-acquired Legionnaires' disease. This study used qPCR to enumerate spp. Read More

J Biol Chem 2019 Feb 7. Epub 2019 Feb 7.

Biological Sciences, University of Delaware, United States.

Upon phagocytosis into macrophages, the intracellular bacterial pathogen secretes effector proteins that manipulate host cell components, enabling it to evade lysosomal degradation. However, the bacterial proteins involved in this evasion are incompletely characterized. Here, we show that the effector protein RavD targets host membrane compartments and contributes to the molecular mechanism that the pathogen uses to prevent encounters with lysosomes. Read More

Carbohydr Res 2019 Feb 23;474:34-42. Epub 2019 Jan 23.

AG Schmid, Institute of Organic Chemistry, University of Vienna, Währinger Straße 38, A-1090, Vienna, Austria.

Legionaminic acid and 4-epi-legionaminic acid are 5,7-diacetamido nonulosonic acids and are assumed to play a crucial role in the virulence of Legionella pneumophila, the causative agent of Legionnaires' disease. Moreover, they are ideal target motifs for the development of vaccines and pathogen detection. Herein, we present a versatile de novo synthesis of legionaminic acid and 4-epi-legionaminic acid. Read More

J AOAC Int 2019 Feb 1. Epub 2019 Feb 1.

EnvironeX Group, 2325 Fernand-Lafontaine Blvd, Longueuil, QC J4N 1N7, Canada.

: Legionnaires' disease is a potentially lethal pneumonia contracted through inhalation of aerosolized water contaminated with bacteria. Detection and control of , the primary species responsible for the disease, is critical to public health. In Québec, cooling towers and evaporative condensers are required to follow a maintenance and testing program to ensure concentrations remain at acceptable levels. Read More

Euro Surveill 2019 Jan;24(4)

Applied Microbiology Research, Department of Biomedicine, University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland.

IntroductionWater supply and air-conditioner cooling towers (ACCT) are potential sources of infection in people. During outbreaks, traditional typing methods cannot sufficiently segregate strains to reliably trace back transmissions to these artificial water systems. Moreover, because multiple strains may be present within these systems, methods to adequately distinguish strains are needed. Read More

Methods Mol Biol 2019 ;1921:399-417

Centre for Innate Immunity and Infectious Diseases, Hudson Institute of Medical Research, Clayton, VIC, Australia.

Infection of C57BL/6 mice with wild-type Legionella pneumophila typically results in very mild disease. However, in mice where the cytosolic recognition of flagellin is impaired by mutation, L. pneumophila infection results in more severe lung inflammation that is reminiscent of Legionnaires' disease. Read More

Methods Mol Biol 2019 ;1921:323-331

Institut für Mikrobiologie, Technische Universität Braunschweig, Braunschweig, Germany.

Legionnaires' disease is a severe pneumonia caused by inhalation of Legionella pneumophila. Although powerful infection models ranging from monocellular host systems to mammals were developed, numerous intra- and extracellular interactions of L. pneumophila factors with human lung tissue structures remain unknown. Read More

Methods Mol Biol 2019 ;1921:145-157

Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Melbourne at the Peter Doherty Institute for Infection and Immunity, Melbourne, VIC, Australia.

Current biomedical research into Legionnaires' disease is dominated by studies of Legionella pneumophila, largely because this pathogen is responsible for approximately 90% of clinical disease worldwide. However, in certain geographical regions, infections with non-pneumophila species are responsible for a significant proportion of diagnosed Legionnaires' disease. Understanding the pathogenesis of these non-pneumophila species of Legionella is an important step toward clinical intervention. Read More

Methods Mol Biol 2019 ;1921:123-144

Division of Biology, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS, USA.

Legionella pneumophila is an intracellular bacterial pathogen that can cause a severe inflammatory pneumonia in humans called Legionnaires' disease, which results from bacterial replication within alveolar macrophages. L. pneumophila replication within macrophages is dependent on hundreds of individual protein virulence factors. Read More

Methods Mol Biol 2019 ;1921:79-89

Institute of Medical Microbiology, University of Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland.

The amoeba-resistant bacterium Legionella pneumophila infects humans through aerosols and thereby can cause a life-threatening pneumonia termed Legionnaires' disease. In the environment L. pneumophila forms and colonizes biofilms, which usually comprise complex multispecies communities. Read More

Microbiol Resour Announc 2019 Jan 17;8(3). Epub 2019 Jan 17.

Institute of Medical Microbiology and Hygiene, Austrian Agency for Health and Food Safety, Vienna, Austria.

Members of the genus are widespread in natural water sources. This is the first report on the draft genome sequences of Legionella taurinensis in Austria. The isolates were recovered from a hot water system associated with a case of Legionnaires' disease caused by Legionella pneumophila in 2018. Read More

Eur J Intern Med 2019 04 24;62:e13-e14. Epub 2019 Jan 24.

Department of Intensive Care Medicine, Centro Hospitalar São João, Portugal.

PLoS One 2019 25;14(1):e0202312. Epub 2019 Jan 25.

School of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, Washington State University, Pullman, Washington, United States of America.

Type IV secretion systems exist in a number of bacterial pathogens and are used to secrete effector proteins directly into host cells in order to change their environment making the environment hospitable for the bacteria. In recent years, several machine learning algorithms have been developed to predict effector proteins, potentially facilitating experimental verification. However, inconsistencies exist between their results. Read More

Sci Rep 2019 Jan 24;9(1):623. Epub 2019 Jan 24.

Infectious Diseases Unit, Fundació Institut d'Investigació Germans Trias i Pujol, Hospital Universitari Germans Trias i Pujol, Badalona, Spain.

Legionnaires' disease (LD) is an atypical pneumonia caused by the inhalation of Legionella. The methods used for the diagnosis of LD are direct culture of respiratory samples and urinary antigen detection. However, the sensitivity of culture is low, and the urinary antigen test is specific only for L. Read More

Fatigue 2018 19;6(2):106-121. Epub 2018 Jan 19.

Kirby Institute, University of New South Wales, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia.

Background: The purpose of the Collaborative on Fatigue Following Infection (COFFI) is for investigators of post-infection fatigue (PIF) and other syndromes to collaborate on these enigmatic and poorly understood conditions by studying relatively homogeneous populations with known infectious triggers. Utilizing COFFI, pooled data and stored biosamples will support both epidemiological and laboratory research to better understand the etiology and risk factors for development and progression of PIF.

Methods: COFFI consists of prospective cohorts from the UK, Netherlands, Norway, USA, New Zealand and Australia, with some cohorts closed and some open to recruitment. Read More

Am J Infect Control 2019 Jan 17. Epub 2019 Jan 17.

Department of Microbiology, Virology, and Infection Prevention Control, Great Ormond Street Hospital NHS Foundation Trust, London, United Kingdom.

Background: Hospital-acquired Legionnaires' disease is associated with the presence of Legionella pneumophila in hospital water systems. In the United Kingdom, the Department of Health recommends maintaining hot water temperatures >55°C and cold water temperatures <20°C at the point of delivery to prevent proliferation of L pneumophila in water systems. In this study, we evaluated the efficacy of copper and silver ionization to control L pneumophila at deliberately reduced hot water temperatures (43°C) within a newly installed water system in a new building linked to a large health care facility in the United Kingdom. Read More

JAMA Netw Open 2018 Jun 1;1(2):e180230. Epub 2018 Jun 1.

National Infectious Diseases Service, Specialty Care Services, Veterans Health Administration, Department of Veterans Affairs, Washington, DC.

Importance: Legionnaires disease (LD) incidence is increasing in the United States. Health care facilities are a high-risk setting for transmission of Legionella bacteria from building water systems to occupants. However, the contribution of LD in health care facilities to national LD rates is not well characterized. Read More

JAMA Netw Open 2018 Jun 1;1(2):e180232. Epub 2018 Jun 1.

Division of Pulmonary, Critical Care, and Sleep Medicine, Department of Medicine, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle.

Am J Infect Control 2019 Jan 9. Epub 2019 Jan 9.

Research Group Building Physics, Construction and Climate Control, Department of Architecture and Urban Planning, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium.

Background: Legionnaires disease occurs worldwide. Many authorities have guidelines and regulations to prevent and control Legionella in water systems. These regulations are based on often very limited field and laboratory observations and measurements. Read More

Perfusion 2019 Jan 10:267659118822941. Epub 2019 Jan 10.

2 Division of Cardiac Surgery, Department of Surgery, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, Canada.

Legionella community-acquired pneumonia necessitating veno-venous extracorporeal membrane oxygenation for severe acute respiratory distress syndrome has been reported in adults. However, few options remain in cases of refractory hypoxemia on veno-venous extracorporeal membrane oxygenation. Herein, we describe adjunctive extended therapeutic hypothermia for refractory hypoxemia despite veno-venous extracorporeal membrane oxygenation for successful management of severe acute respiratory distress syndrome secondary to Legionella. Read More

Environ Microbiol 2019 Mar 22;21(3):1035-1053. Epub 2019 Feb 22.

Institute of Medical Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Zürich, Gloriastrasse 30, 8006 Zürich, Switzerland.

The causative agent of Legionnaires' disease, Legionella pneumophila, colonizes amoebae and biofilms in the environment. The opportunistic pathogen employs the Lqs (Legionella quorum sensing) system and the signalling molecule LAI-1 (Legionella autoinducer-1) to regulate virulence, motility, natural competence and expression of a 133 kb genomic "fitness island", including a putative novel regulator. Here, we show that the regulator termed LvbR is an LqsS-regulated transcription factor that binds to the promoter of lpg1056/hnox1 (encoding an inhibitor of the diguanylate cyclase Lpg1057), and thus, regulates proteins involved in c-di-GMP metabolism. Read More

BMC Infect Dis 2018 Dec 27;18(1):696. Epub 2018 Dec 27.

Ministry of Health of the Council of Communities of Castilla - La Mancha, Av. de Madrid s/n, 45600 Talavera de la Reina, Toledo, Spain.

Background: An explosive outbreak of Legionnaires' disease (LD) was identified on 11 December 2015 in Manzanares, Ciudad Real, Spain, and was declared closed by 03 February 2016. The number of declared cases was 593 with 277 confirmed cases so that it can be considered as one of the outbreaks with highest attack rate. This rate could be attributed to the ageing of the population, among others, in addition to various risk factors and habits, and the meteorological conditions (thermal inversion) maintained in this municipality at the time. Read More

J Biol Chem 2019 02 20;294(8):2862-2879. Epub 2018 Dec 20.

the MRC Centre for Molecular Bacteriology and Infection, Department of Life Sciences, Imperial College London, London SW7 2AZ, United Kingdom, and

causes Legionnaires' disease, a severe form of pneumonia. translocates more than 300 effectors into host cells via its Dot/Icm (Defective in organelle trafficking/Intracellular multiplication) type IV secretion system to enable its replication in target cells. Here, we studied the effector LtpM, which is encoded in a recombination hot spot in Paris. Read More

Euro Surveill 2018 Dec;23(50)

Department of Infectious Diseases, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Rome, Italy.

AimTo evaluate real-time PCR as a diagnostic method for Legionnaires' disease (LD). Detection of DNA is among the laboratory criteria of a probable LD case, according to the European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control, although the utility and advantages, as compared to culture, are widely recognised.MethodsTwo independent laboratories, one using an in-house and the other a commercial real-time PCR assay, analysed 354 respiratory samples from 311 patients hospitalised with pneumonia between 2010-15. Read More

Swiss Med Wkly 2018 11 2;148:w14687. Epub 2018 Dec 2.

Laboratory of Virology, Division of Laboratory Medicine and Division of Infectious Diseases, University of Geneva Hospitals, Switzerland; University of Geneva Medical School, Switzerland.

Purpose: Eight confirmed cases of Legionnaires’ disease were identified at the Geneva University Hospitals between 28 July 2017 and 02 August 2017, leading to a detailed outbreak investigation.

Methods: Legionnaires’ disease cases were defined according to Swiss and European (ELDSNet) consensus guidelines. An outbreak investigation task force was put in place. Read More

Microb Pathog 2019 Mar 11;128:100-105. Epub 2018 Dec 11.

Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Advanced Sciences, Medical Sciences University Islamic Azad, Tehran, Iran.

Legionella pneumophila causes a severe form of pneumonia known as Legionnaires' disease especially in patients with impaired cellular immune response. In order to prevent the disease, immunogenicity and the level of the induction of protective immunity from the recombinant peptidoglycan-associated lipoprotein (rPAL) against Legionella pneumophila in BALB/c mice was examined. Mice immunized with (rPAL) rapidly increased an antibody response in serum and also displayed a strong activation of both innate and adaptive cell-mediated immunity as determined by antigen-specific splenocyte proliferation, an early production of pro-inflammatory cytokines in the serum and in the splenocyte cultures. Read More

MBio 2018 12 11;9(6). Epub 2018 Dec 11.

Institute of Medical Microbiology, University of Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland

is the causative agent of a pneumonia termed Legionnaires' disease. The facultative intracellular bacterium employs the Icm/Dot type IV secretion system (T4SS) and a plethora of translocated "effector" proteins to interfere with host vesicle trafficking pathways and establish a replicative niche, the -containing vacuole (LCV). Internalization of the pathogen and the events immediately ensuing are accompanied by host cell-mediated phosphoinositide (PI) lipid changes and the Icm/Dot-controlled conversion of the LCV from a PtdIns(3)-positive vacuole into a PtdIns(4)-positive replication-permissive compartment, which tightly associates with the endoplasmic reticulum. Read More

Int J Hyg Environ Health 2019 Mar 27;222(2):315-318. Epub 2018 Nov 27.

Robert Koch Institute, Seestr. 10, Berlin, Germany. Electronic address:

In Germany community-acquired Legionnaires' disease is usually caused by the species Legionella pneumophila. Recurrent cases of Legionnaires' disease are rarely reported and are due either to a second infection (reinfection) or a relapse of a previous case. We report a case of recurrent Legionnaires' disease in an 86-year-old female patient infected with Legionella pneumophila serogroup 1, monoclonal antibody-subtype Knoxville, sequence type unknown. Read More

Epidemiol Infect 2018 Dec 3:1-6. Epub 2018 Dec 3.

Biolinea Int.,Palma de Mallorca,Spain.

According to European Guidelines for Legionnaires' Disease prevention and control, travel-associated Legionnaires' disease (TALD) cases are managed differently if classified as sporadic or as part of a cluster and more stringent control measures are deployed after clusters are identified. In this study, we propose to modify the current cluster definition: 'two or more cases of Legionnaires' disease (LD) who stayed at, or visited, the same commercial accommodation site 2-10 days before onset of illness and whose onset is within the same 2-year period' with a new cluster definition, i.e. Read More

Int J Environ Res Public Health 2018 11 30;15(12). Epub 2018 Nov 30.

Department of Hygiene and Epidemiology, Medical School, University of Thessaly, 41222 Larissa, Greece.

This study aimed to assess the colonization of hotel water systems in central Greece and Corfu by , and to investigate the association between physicochemical parameters and colonization. Standardized hygiene inspection was conducted in 51 hotels, and 556 water samples were analyzed for spp Free chlorine concentration, pH, hardness, conductivity, and trace metals were defined in cold water samples. The results of inspections and chemical analyses were associated with the microbiological results using univariate and logistic regression analysis. Read More

Water Res 2019 02 1;149:21-34. Epub 2018 Nov 1.

Leibniz University Hannover, Institute for Sanitary Engineering and Waste Management, Hannover, 30167, Germany. Electronic address:

Wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) have been identified as confirmed but until today underestimated sources of Legionella, playing an important role in local and community cases and outbreaks of Legionnaires' disease. In general, aerobic biological systems provide an optimum environment for the growth of Legionella due to high organic nitrogen and oxygen concentrations, ideal temperatures and the presence of protozoa. However, few studies have investigated the occurrence of Legionella in WWTPs, and many questions in regards to the interacting factors that promote the proliferation and persistence of Legionella in these treatment systems are still unanswered. Read More

Indian J Med Microbiol 2018 Jul-Sep;36(3):324-333

Department of Microbiology, Indira Gandhi Medical College and Research Institute, Puducherry, India.

Legionella pneumophila was first recognised as a fatal cause of pneumonia more than four decades ago, during the 1976-American Legion convention in Philadelphia, USA. Legionella spp. continue to cause disease outbreaks of public health significance, and at present, Legionnaires' disease (LD) has emerged as an important cause of community and hospital-acquired pneumonia. Read More

Biomed Res Int 2018 22;2018:8194368. Epub 2018 Oct 22.

Laboratoire Ecologie & Biologie des Interactions, UMR CNRS 7267, Université de Poitiers, France.

, the causative agent of Legionnaires' disease, is a waterborne bacterium mainly found in man-made water systems in close association with free-living amoebae and multispecies biofilms. strains, originating from various environments including freshwater systems or isolated from hospitalized patients, were tested for their antagonistic activity towards . A high amount of tested strains was thus found to be active. Read More

Med Microbiol Immunol 2019 Feb 1;208(1):25-32. Epub 2018 Nov 1.

School of Basic Medical Science, Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang, 050017, People's Republic of China.

Gram-negative bacterium Legionella is able to proliferate intracellularly in mammalian host cells and amoeba, which became known in 1976 since they caused a large outbreak of pneumonia. It had been reported that different strains of Legionella pneumophila, Legionella micdadei, Legionella longbeachae, and Legionella feeleii caused human respiratory diseases, which were known as Pontiac fever or Legionnaires' disease. However, the differences of the virulence traits among the strains of the single species and the pathogenesis of the two diseases that were due to the bacterial virulence factors had not been well elucidated. Read More

PLoS One 2018 18;13(10):e0206110. Epub 2018 Oct 18.

Pneumonia Response and Surveillance Laboratory, Respiratory Diseases Branch, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, United States of America.

Legionella spp. are the cause of a severe bacterial pneumonia known as Legionnaires' disease (LD). In some cases, current genetic subtyping methods cannot resolve LD outbreaks caused by common, potentially endemic L. Read More

Epidemiol Infect 2018 Oct 18:1-9. Epub 2018 Oct 18.

New York City Department of Health and Mental Hygiene,Bureau of Communicable Disease,Queens, New York,USA.

Legionnaires' disease (LD) incidence in the USA has quadrupled since 2000. Health departments must detect LD outbreaks quickly to identify and remediate sources. We tested the performance of a system to prospectively detect simulated LD outbreaks in Allegheny County, Pennsylvania, USA. Read More

J Biol Regul Homeost Agents 2018 Sep-Oct;32(5):1311-1315

Department of Public Health and Pediatrics, University of Turin, Turin, Italy.

The creation of guidelines is a methodologically complex activity that requires technical expertise, resources and time. Methods of guideline production must meet at least these three criteria: multidisciplinarity, systematic review, and ranked recommendations. In May 2015, the new "Guidelines for the prevention and control of Legionnaire's disease" were published on the website of the Italian Ministry of Health in order to "gather, update and integrate in a single document all the previous national recommendations published". Read More

Infect Immun 2019 Jan 19;87(1). Epub 2018 Dec 19.

Institut für Mikrobiologie, Technische Universität Braunschweig, Braunschweig, Germany

The gammaproteobacterium is the causative agent of Legionnaires' disease, an atypical pneumonia that manifests itself with severe lung damage. , a common inhabitant of freshwater environments, replicates in free-living amoebae and persists in biofilms in natural and man-made water systems. Its environmental versatility is reflected in its ability to survive and grow within a broad temperature range as well as its capability to colonize and infect a wide range of hosts, including protozoa and humans. Read More

Trends Parasitol 2018 12 12;34(12):1027-1037. Epub 2018 Oct 12.

Université de Poitiers, Laboratoire Ecologie et Biologie des Interactions - UMR CNRS 7267, F-86073 Poitiers, France.

Bacteria of the order Legionellales, such as Legionella pneumophila, the agent of Legionnaires' disease, and Coxiella burnetii, the agent of Q fever, are widely recognized as human pathogens. While our view of the Legionellales is often limited to clinical isolates, ecological surveys are continually uncovering new members of the Legionellales that do not fall into the recognized pathogenic species. Here we emphasize that most of these Legionellales are nonpathogenic forms that have evolved symbiotic lifestyles with nonvertebrate hosts. Read More

Microb Genom 2018 10 12;4(10). Epub 2018 Oct 12.

1​Pathogen Genomics, Wellcome Sanger Institute, Wellcome Genome Campus, Hinxton, Cambridge, UK.

The diversity of Legionella pneumophila populations within single water systems is not well understood, particularly in those unassociated with cases of Legionnaires' disease. Here, we performed genomic analysis of 235 L. pneumophila isolates obtained from 28 water samples in 13 locations within a large occupational building. Read More

Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2018 Dec 8;39(12):1470-1472. Epub 2018 Oct 8.

1Rollins School of Public Health,Emory University,Atlanta,Georgia.

In 2017, we surveyed 101 SHEA Research Network hospitals regarding Legionnaires' disease (LD). Of 29 respondents, 94% have or are developing a water management plan with varying characteristics and personnel engaged. Most LD diagnostic testing is limited to urine antigen testing. Read More

Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2018 19;8:328. Epub 2018 Sep 19.

Division of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, United States.

J Natl Black Nurses Assoc 2018 Jul;29(1):44-50

University of Michigan-Flint School of Nursing, 2180 William S. White Building, 303 E. Kearsley Street, Flint, MI 48502- 1950.

The water crisis in Flint, Michigan raised national awareness about lead- tainted drinking water, particularly its harm to children and pregnant and lactating women. However, according to recent findings, there may be another by-product of this man-made crisis. Failure to use anticorrosive material in the water, a practice mandated by the 1978 Clean Water Act, is being linked to an outbreak of Legionnaires' disease, an illness detrimental primarily to adults over 65 years of age. Read More

J Occup Health 2018 Nov 27;60(6):527-528. Epub 2018 Sep 27.

Department of Pulmonary Medicine, Minamisoma Municipal General Hospital.

Methods Mol Biol 2018 ;1841:59-76

Institute of Medical Microbiology, University of Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland.

The causative agent of Legionnaires' disease, Legionella pneumophila, replicates in free-living amoebae as well as in macrophages of the innate immune system within a distinct membrane-bound compartment, the "Legionella-containing-vacuole" (LCV). LCV formation is a complex process and requires the bacterial Icm/Dot type IV secretion system, which translocates approximately 300 different "effector" proteins. Intact LCVs from infected Dictyostelium discoideum amoebae or RAW 264. Read More