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J Evid Based Dent Pract 2018 Dec 13;18(4):290-297. Epub 2018 Feb 13.

Department of Periodontology, Tufts University School of Dental Medicine, Boston, MA, USA.

Objective: This report proposes a framework to integrate evidence-based dentistry (EBD) in a systematic approach in the clinical management of a patient diagnosed with drug-induced gingival hyperplasia combined with generalized aggressive periodontitis.This report illustrates the case of a 37-year-old female who presented to the Department of Periodontology at Tufts University School of Dental Medicine with enlarged, tender, bleeding gums, and loose teeth combined with a history of uncontrolled hypertension treated with calcium channel blockers.

Methods: Incorporating the EBD process, a new 5-step framework is proposed: ask the clinical question, acquire and appraise the evidence, apply it in the clinical setting, and assess the subjective and objective outcomes. Read More

J Periodontol 2018 Jun;89 Suppl 1:S74-S84

Division of Periodontology, Niigata University Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Japan.

Periodontal health is defined by absence of clinically detectable inflammation. There is a biological level of immune surveillance that is consistent with clinical gingival health and homeostasis. Clinical gingival health may be found in a periodontium that is intact, i. Read More

J Clin Periodontol 2018 Jun;45 Suppl 20:S68-S77

Division of Periodontology, Niigata University Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Japan.

Periodontal health is defined by absence of clinically detectable inflammation. There is a biological level of immune surveillance that is consistent with clinical gingival health and homeostasis. Clinical gingival health may be found in a periodontium that is intact, i. Read More

J Indian Soc Periodontol 2017 Sep-Oct;21(5):409-411

Department of Periodontics, Postgraduate Institute of Dental Sciences, Rohtak, Haryana, India.

Gingival enlargement is a very common side effect associated with the administration of several drugs, mainly anticonvulsants, calcium channel blockers (CCBs), and immunosuppressants. Amlodipine (a CCB) is a safe antihypertensive drug with a longer duration of action. Gingival enlargement induced by amlodipine is less prevalent among CCBs. Read More

Ann Anat 2018 May 7;217:7-11. Epub 2018 Feb 7.

Southern Illinois University School of Dental Medicine, Alton, IL 62002, USA. Electronic address:

Gingival overgrowth (GO) is an undesirable result of certain drugs like Cyclosporine A (CsA). Histopathology of GO shows hyperplasia of gingival epithelium, expansion of connective tissue with increased collagen, or a combination. Factors such as age, gender, oral hygiene, duration, and dosage also influence onset and severity of GO. Read More

Contemp Clin Dent 2017 Oct-Dec;8(4):565-570

Department of Medicine, Faculty of Clinical Sciences, College of Medicine University of Lagos, Idi-Araba, Lagos, Nigeria.

Background: Long-term treatment of common chronic cardiac conditions such as hypertension with calcium channel blockers (CCBs) has long been associated with gingival hyperplasia. This oral side effect may affect esthetics and function, yet often overlooked and therefore underreported among Nigerians.

Aim: This study aimed to determine the association of CCBs with gingival overgrowth (GO) in hypertensive patients. Read More

Indian J Pharmacol 2017 May-Jun;49(3):257-259

Department of Pharmacology, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, Jodhpur, Rajasthan, India.

Gingival overgrowth (GO) is one of the common findings in clinical practice. There could be several causes including drugs associated with the GO. Carbamazepine (CBZ) and amlodipine are the drugs which are infrequently documented as a cause in inducing the gingival hyperplasia. Read More

Atlas Oral Maxillofac Surg Clin North Am 2017 Sep;25(2):127-132

Department of Diagnostics and Biological Sciences, University of Colorado School of Dental Medicine, 13065 East 17th Avenue, Mail Stop F844, Aurora, CO 80045, USA; Department of Family Medicine, University of Colorado School of Medicine, 12631 East 17th Avenue, Aurora, CO 80045, USA. Electronic address:

J Pharm Health Care Sci 2017 19;3:19. Epub 2017 Jul 19.

Laboratory of Drug Informatics, Gifu Pharmaceutical University, 1-25-4 Daigaku-nishi, Gifu, 501-1196 Japan.

Background: Drug-induced gingival hyperplasia (DIGH) causes problems with chewing, aesthetics, and pronunciation, and leads to the deterioration of the patient's quality of life (QOL). Thus, the aim of this study was to evaluate the incidence of DIGH using spontaneous reporting system (SRS) databases.

Methods: We analyzed reports of DIGH from SRS databases and calculated the reporting odds ratios (RORs) of suspected drugs (immunosuppressants, calcium channel blockers, and anticonvulsants). Read More

J Clin Diagn Res 2017 Apr 1;11(4):ZD30-ZD32. Epub 2017 Apr 1.

Postgraduate Student, Department of Periodontics, Vydehi Institute of Dental Sciences and Research Centre, Bengaluru, Karnataka, India.

This case report presents a case of drug induced gingival overgrowth in a 28-year-old female patient with history of Coronary Artery Disease (CAD) and was prescribed digoxin in combination with furosemide and acitrom for the same. On clinical examination, the patient presented with severe gingival overgrowth. The volume of enlargement seen did not correlate solely with the diagnosis of inflammatory Gingival Enlargement (GE), hence an added drug induced component to the Gingival Overgrowth (GO) was suspected. Read More

Hua Xi Kou Qiang Yi Xue Za Zhi 2017 Feb;35(1):99-103

State Key Laboratory of Oral Diseases, Dept. of Periodontics, West China Hospital of Stomatology, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, China.

Drug-induced gingival overgrowth (DIGO) is characterized by fibrous gingival hyperplasia and increased gingival volume. DIGO is histologically associated with proliferation of cells and deposition of extracellular matrices, particularly collagen. Integrin α2β1 is related to collagen phagocytosis and involved in the occurrence and progression of DIGO. Read More

Rom J Morphol Embryol 2017 ;58(4):1371-1376

Department of Pedodontics, Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Dental Medicine, "Grigore T. Popa" University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Iasi, Romania;

Several causes of gingival hyperplasia are known, the most widely accepted being the drug-induced gingival augmentation, a side effect associated mainly with three classes of drugs: anticonvulsants (Phenytoin), immunosuppressants (Cyclosporine A), and various calcium channel blockers (Nifedipine, Verapamil, Diltiazem). We studied the effect of Cyclosporine A (CsA) and Nifedipine on gingival fibroblasts extracted from the rat gum. Gingival fibroblasts were isolated from 6-week-old male rats weighing 150-170 g, from gingival explants, and grown in a specific culture medium consisting of Dulbecco's Modified Eagle's Medium (DMEM) supplemented with antibiotic and 10% fetal bovine serum (FBS). Read More

Contemp Clin Dent 2016 Apr-Jun;7(2):265-8

Department of Periodontology, Manipal College of Dental Sciences, Manipal, Karnataka, India.

Clinicians are often intrigued by the varied manifestations of the gingival tissue. Gingival overgrowth is a common clinical finding and most of them represent a reactive hyperplasia as a direct result of plaque-related inflammatory gingival disease. These types of growth generally respond to good plaque control, removal of the causative irritants, and conservative tissue management. Read More

J Adv Pharm Technol Res 2016 Apr-Jun;7(2):64-8

Department of Restorative Sciences, Al Farabi Colleges, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.

Drug reactions are a group of reactionary lesions generally show their manifestations in the oral cavity. The drug reactions may vary from local rashes to well-developed swellings in the oral cavity especially involving the gingiva. Most of the drug reactions are asymptomatic and commonly triggered from the active metabolite of a drug used for a long time. Read More

J Ir Dent Assoc 2015 Oct-Nov;61(5):248-51

Introduction: Many factors can contribute to the development of gingival overgrowth (hyperplasia), including: plaque control; periodontal variables; medications and their relative dose; age; sex; and, genetic factors. Nifedipine is a calcium channel blocker commonly reported to result in drug-induced gingival overgrowth (DIGO). This report outlines a case of gingival overgrowth induced by amlodipine (a calcium channel blocker less frequently reported to cause gingival hyperplasia), exacerbated by the presence of plaque. Read More

West Indian Med J 2015 Jun 14;64(3):279-82. Epub 2015 Apr 14.

Department of Oral Medicine and Radiology, AB Shetty Memorial Institute of Dental Sciences, NITTE University, Deralakatte, Mangalore, Karnataka, India.

Anticonvulsants, antihypertensive calcium channel blockers and immunosuppressants are the three main classes of drugs known to cause drug-induced gingival hypertrophy or hyperplasia. Among the calcium channel blockers, nifedipine administration has most frequently been associated with medication-related gingival hyperplasia. The incidence with amlodipine, which has a mode of action pharmacodynamically comparable to nifedipine, has rarely been reported. Read More

J Indian Soc Periodontol 2014 Mar;18(2):226-8

Department of Periodontology, Rural Dental College, Loni, India.

Aims: Since the incidence of gingival overgrowth induced by amlodipine remains poorly defined, this study was carried out with an aim to determine the incidence.

Materials And Methods: Dental patients who received amlodipine (N = 115), for more than 3 months were studied to determine the drug-induced gingival overgrowth. Clinical diagnosis of drug-induced overgrowth was verified by disappearance or decreased severity of gingival overgrowth after withdrawal of the causative drug. Read More

Arch Oral Biol 2014 Mar 14;59(3):283-8. Epub 2013 Dec 14.

Ege University, School of Dentistry, Department of Periodontology, Izmir, Turkey.

Background: Variances in fibroblasts' α2β1 integrin intensity may lead to altered adhesion to type I collagen and consequently to suppression of phagocytosis which may be one of the mechanisms for drug induced gingival overgrowth. The present study aimed to evaluate the genotype and allele frequencies of α2 integrin +807 gene in renal transplant patients with and without gingival overgrowth.

Material And Methods: Seventy renal transplant patients with cyclosporine A (CsA)-induced gingival overgrowth (CsA GO+) were enrolled. Read More

Ann Stomatol (Roma) 2013 24;4(Suppl 2):14. Epub 2013 Oct 24.

Department of Surgical, Oncological and Oral Sciences, Sector of Oral Medicine "V. Margiotta", University of Palermo, Italy.

Ann Stomatol (Roma) 2013 24;4(Suppl 2):8-9. Epub 2013 Oct 24.

DiSC Integrated Surgical and Diagnostic Sciences Department, Laser Surgery and Laser Therapy Departmental Centre, University of Genoa, Italy.

Compend Contin Educ Dent 2013 May;34(5):330-6

Department of Periodontics and Endodontics, University at Buffalo, The State University of New York, School of Dental Medicine, USA.

The first documented case of drug-induced gingival enlargement was reported in 1939. Since that time, specific medications have been associated with this condition. Although the biologic mechanisms responsible for drug-mediated gingival enlargement remain unclear, a multifactorial etiology is considered to be responsible, with contributing factors including age, genetic predisposition, and local conditions. Read More

Indian J Dent Res 2013 Mar-Apr;24(2):255-60

Department of Periodontics, Thai Moogambigai Dental College, Golden George Nagar, Chennai, India.

Background: Drug-induced gingival overgrowth (DIGO) is one of the unwanted side effects of amlodipine therapy, but the pathogenesis still remains unclear. Apoptosis, which plays a ubiquitous role in tissue homeostasis, including gingiva, may be involved in the development of gingival enlargement.

Aims And Objectives: (i) To study the distribution of Bcl-2 in healthy and overgrown gingival tissues. Read More

Dent Res J (Isfahan) 2013 Jan;10(1):52-8

Department of Pediatric, Dental School, Zanjan University of Medical Sciences, Zanjan, Iran.

Background: Gingival overgrowth is a serious side-effect that accompanies the use of Cyclosporin A (CsA). Up to 97% of the transplant recipient children, who were submitted to CsA therapy, have been reported to suffer from this side-effect. Several conflicting theories have been proposed to explain the fibroblast's function in CsA-induced gingival overgrowth. Read More

Case Rep Dent 2013 29;2013:387453. Epub 2013 May 29.

Department of Periodontics, Sri Sai College of Dental Surgery, Kothrepally, Vikarabad, Andhra Pradesh 501101, India.

Gingival overgrowth/hyperplasia can be attributed to several causes, but drug-induced gingival overgrowth/hyperplasia arises secondarily to prolonged use of antihypertensive drugs, anticonvulsants and immunosuppressants. The management is complex in nature considering the multitude of factors involved such as substitution of drug strict plaque control along with excision of the tissue to be performed under local anesthesia as outpatient. In the recent times, the patient's psychological fear of the treatment with the use of surgical blade and multiple visits has developed the concept of single visit treatment under general anesthesia incorporating a laser as viable option. Read More

J Hum Hypertens 2014 Jan 6;28(1):10-4. Epub 2013 Jun 6.

Department of Periodontology, College of Dentistry, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, TN, USA.

Despite the popularity and wide acceptance of the calcium channel blockers (CCBs) by the medical community, their oral impact is rarely recognized or discussed. CCBs, as a group, have been frequently implicated as an etiologic factor for a common oral condition seen among patients seeking dental care: drug-induced gingival enlargement or overgrowth. This enlargement can be localized or generalized, and can range from mild to extremely severe, affecting patient's appearance and function. Read More

J Indian Soc Periodontol 2013 Jan;17(1):115-9

Department of Periodontics, Vydehi Institute of Dental Sciences and Research Centre, Bhimavaram, India.

Enlargement of the gingiva can be due to various causes. Most prevalent are the inflammatory type and drug-induced type of gingival hyperplasia. However, sever enlargement associated with an aggressive type of periodontitis is an infrequent finding. Read More

BMJ Case Rep 2013 Apr 23;2013. Epub 2013 Apr 23.

Department of Oral Medicine and Radiology, Kothiwal Dental College & Research Centre, Moradabad, Uttar Pradesh, India.

Drug-induced gingival enlargement is the term now used to describe medication-related gingival hypertrophy or hyperplasia, a condition commonly induced by three main classes of drugs: anticonvulsants, antihypertensive calcium channel blockers and the immunosuppressant cyclosporine. The pathogenesis of drug-induced gingival enlargement is uncertain and there appears to be no unifying hypothesis that links together the three commonly implicated drugs. Phenytoin-induced gingival overgrowth is a well known and frequently reported gingival lesion, which was first detected in 1939. Read More

Biol Cell 2013 Jun 3;105(6):261-75. Epub 2013 May 3.

Department of Orthodontics, School of Stomatology, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, Shaanxi 710032, China.

Background Information: Human gingival tissues are prone to hyperplasia under inflammatory stimuli. We have identified gingival tissue-specific mesenchymal stem cells (GMSCs) and found their functional change being correlated with drug-induced gingival hyperplasia. However, whether these cells exhibit characteristics of pro-fibrotic phenotype under inflammatory condition remains unknown. Read More

Prescrire Int 2011 Dec;20(122):293-4

Gingival hyperplasia refers to an overgrowth of gum tissue. It starts in the anterior interdental tissues and then extends posteriorly. The gums can sometimes enlarge to cover almost all the teeth. Read More

J Indian Soc Periodontol 2010 Oct;14(4):279-81

Department of Periodontics, Dr. R. Ahmed Dental College & Hospital, Kolkata, West Bengal, India.

Gingival enlargement is one of the side effects associated with certain drugs. Amlodipine, a calcium channel blocker, used as antihypertensive drug has been found associated with gingival hyperplasia. This case series presents diagnosis and management of amlodipine-induced gingival hyperplasia. Read More

Contemp Clin Dent 2010 Jul;1(3):171-6

Department of Orthodontics & Dentofacial Orthopedics, A.M.E's Dental college and Hospital, Raichur, India.

Interdisciplinary treatment is becoming an ever-increasing part of modern-day orthodontic practice. This case report details the successful orthodontic-periodontal management of an epileptic patient with a significant drug-induced gingival hyperplasia. The problems that such patient's present are discussed before considering the specific orthodontic techniques employed. Read More

JNMA J Nepal Med Assoc 2009 Apr-Jun;48(174):149-52

Department of Dental surgery, National Academy of Medical Sciences, Bir Hospital, Kathmandu, Nepal.

Introduction: Drug-induced gingival enlargement is a well documented side effect with the use of phenytoin, cyclosporine and calcium channel blockers. The prevalence of gingival enlargement induced by calcium channel blockers is uncertain. Several studies show conflicting results ranging from 20% to 83%. Read More

Med Hypotheses 2010 Jun 20;74(6):984-5. Epub 2010 Feb 20.

Department of Prosthodontics, West China College of Stomatology, Sichuan University, Sichuan 610041, China.

Food impaction is a severe clinical trouble that bothers most people especially middle aged and old people. It is reported that the rate of food impaction is 92.2%. Read More

Med Monatsschr Pharm 2010 Jan;33(1):23-4

Institut für Klinische Pharmakologie der Medizinische Hochschule Hannover, Hannover.

Gingival hyperplasia is a typical adverse reaction of certain drugs (phenytoin, calcium antagonists and cyclosporine). Also oral contraceptives and presumably hormone replacement therapy may rarely lead to gingival hyperplasia. By differential diagnosis a paraneoplastic syndrome has to be taken into account. Read More

Int J Oral Maxillofac Implants 2009 May-Jun;24(3):534-40

Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, Prosthodontics and Special Dental Care, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, the Netherlands.

Purpose: A retrospective study on the performance of endosseous implants in a population of patients with severe epilepsy and additional motor and/or intellectual impairments was performed.

Materials And Methods: All residents of an inpatient center for persons affected by severe, refractory epilepsy and multiple disabilities who received endosseous implants between 1991 and April 2007 were included in the study. Implant survival was analyzed using the Kaplan-Meier method. Read More

Rev Med Chir Soc Med Nat Iasi 2008 Oct-Dec;112(4):1026-33

Clinica de Chirurgie OMF, Facultatea de Medicină Dentară, Universitatea de Medicină si Farmacie Gr.T. Popa Iaşi.

Human gingival overgrowth may occur as a side effect of chronic administration of some therapeutic agents. The mechanisms responsible for the gingival tissues lesions, fibrosis and inflamation, involve an impaired balance between the production and the degradation of type I collagen. It has been demonstrated that CCN2/CTGF, a connective tissue growth factor, is highly expressed in the gingival tissues and positively correlated with the degree of fibrosis in the drug-induced gingival overgrowth. Read More

Todays FDA 2008 Mar;20(3):25-7

Neuropediatrics 2007 Oct;38(5):251-2

Department of Dermatology, Hospital General Universitario de Albacete, Albacete, Spain.

There are several causes of gingival hyperplasia and one of the most well-known is drug-induced gingival enlargement. Nevertheless, causes of congenital gingival enlargement include only hereditary and metabolic disorders. Only one case of drug-induced congenital gingival hyperplasia has been reported. Read More

Transplant Proc 2008 Jan-Feb;40(1):181-3

Ege University, School of Dentistry, Department of Periodontology, Bornova Izmir, Turkey.

The aim of this study was to compare the matrix metalloproteinase-1 (MMP-1) levels in gingival fibroblast cultures derived from two groups of renal transplant patients receiving cyclosporine (CsA) who exhibit gingival overgrowth and who have healthy periodontium. Gingival fibroblasts obtained from four patients with CsA-induced gingival overgrowth (CsA-GO) and four patients who receive CsA but have healthy periodontium were incubated with increasing concentrations of CsA and cultured for 72 hours. Expression levels of MMP-1 in all the groups were measured four times at 0, 24, 48, and 72 hours by the Rapid Collagenase Assay Kit. Read More

J Contemp Dent Pract 2007 Sep 1;8(6):50-6. Epub 2007 Sep 1.

Department of Periodontics, School of Dentistry, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran.

Aim: The aim of this article is to present a case of a phenobarbital-induced gingival hyperplasia (GH), discuss possible etiological mechanisms of drug-induced GH, and to present a concise review of the literature.

Background: GH is a well-known complication associated with anticonvulsant phenytoin, antihypertensive calcium channel blockers, and immunosuppressant cyclosporine therapy. Sodium valproate and primidone has very rarely been found to cause GH. Read More

Transplant Proc 2007 May;39(4):1190-4

Department of Liver Transplantation and Hepatobiliary-Pancreatic Surgery, King Faisal Specialist Hospital and Research Center, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.

Objective: To report our experience with dermatological complications after both deceased donor liver transplantation (DDLT) and living-donor liver transplantation (LDLT).

Patients And Methods: Between April 2001 and November 2006, a total of 116 liver transplantation (LT) procedures were performed (73 DDLTs and 43 LDLTs) in 112 patients (4 re-transplants). Posttransplant dermatological problems were recorded. Read More

Pediatr Transplant 2007 May;11(3):340-4

Guy's Tower Guy's Hospital, London, UK.

A 10-yr-old child on long-term cyclosporin immunosuppression for a renal transplant presented with gingival swelling enlargement, in a background of gingival hyperplasia. It is tempting to assume that it is a drug-related lesion; perhaps, an area of plaque-related inflammation. An incisional biopsy revealed a monomorphic B-cell post-transplant lymphoproliferative disease (PTLD). Read More

Clin Exp Dermatol 2007 May 13;32(3):268-71. Epub 2007 Mar 13.

Department of Dermatology, Oxford Radcliffe Hospitals, Oxford, UK.

Renal transplant recipients (RTRs) are susceptible to many cutaneous disorders, including drug-induced skin changes. Hypertrichosis, sebaceous hyperplasia and gingival hyperplasia are well-recognized effects of ciclosporin, one of the immunosuppressants commonly used in RTRs. Pseudofolliculitis barbae usually affects hair-bearing areas of skin in men with darkly pigmented skin who shave on a regular basis. Read More

Int J Cardiol 2007 Nov 1;122(3):e23-4. Epub 2007 Feb 1.

Drug induced gingival hyperplasia is an uncommon entity. Anticonvulsants, immunosuppressants and calcium channel blockers are often implicated. We report a case of a 52-year old male who developed amlodipine induced gingival hyperplasia. Read More

Med Oral Patol Oral Cir Bucal 2006 Nov 1;11(6):E480-2. Epub 2006 Nov 1.

Department of Periodontics, School of dentistry, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, East Azarbaijan, Iran.

Drug-induced gingival hyperplasia is a serious concern both for the patient and the clinician. A 45 year-old Caucasian male patient with hypertension, who received amlodipine (10 mg/day, single dose orally) for two months, sought medical attention because of the new-onset gingival enlargement. On clinical examination a generalized and firm overgrowth of the gingival throughout the maxilla and the mandible were evident. Read More

Expert Opin Drug Saf 2006 Jul;5(4):585-92

The University of New South Wales, Faculty of Medicine, Department of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Bankstown-Lidcombe Hospital, Eldridge Road, Bankstown, NSW 2200, Sydney, Australia.

With the ever-growing armamentarium of pharmacological agents, the gastrointestinal drug-induced side effects of dyspepsia, nausea, vomiting, diarrhoea and constipation are increasingly seen. They are often self-limiting and without serious sequelae, but of greater concern is drug-induced mucosal ulceration that can manifest as gastrointestinal haemorrhage, stricture and perforation. These complications are mainly attributable to NSAIDs and aspirin, which can injure the mucosa anywhere along the gastrointestinal tract. Read More

Tidsskr Nor Laegeforen 2006 May;126(10):1345-8

Seksjon for odontologisk farmakologi og farmakoterapi, Universitetet i Oslo, Postboks 1057 Blindern, 0316 Oslo.

Syphilis was previously termed "the great imitator" because so many of the signs and symptoms are indistinguishable from those of other diseases. This role has been taken over by drugs, and this also applies to adverse drug reactions in the oral region. Accordingly, a careful drug history, including identification of any prescription, over-the-counter, or herbal medicines used, may give an important clue to the differential diagnosis of oral diseases when the aetiology is not apparent. Read More

Rev Med Chir Soc Med Nat Iasi 2005 Jan-Mar;109(1):36-9

Universitatea de Medicină şi Farmacie Gr T Popa Iaşi, Facultatea de Medicină Dentară, Spitalul Universitar C F Iaşi, Clinica Dermatologică.

The broad spectrum of muco-cutaneous manifestations of renal transplantation patients correlates mainly with immunosuppressive therapy. Our study refers to 56 patients with renal transplantation (29 women and 27 men) followed up in the Dialysis and Renal Transplantation Center of Parhon University Hospital Iaşi from November 2000 till October 2003. The most frequent muco-cutaneous manifestations were: infectious complications in 18 cases (32. Read More

Rev Neurol 2006 Mar 16-31;42(6):336-40

Servicio de Neurofisiología, Complejo Hospitalario Universitario de Albacete, Albacete, Spain.

Introduction: Embryogenetic disorders are one of the most serious problems in the life of an epileptic. Over the last few decades many antiepileptic drugs, including valproic acid, have been shown to have teratogenic properties. Embryopathy due to valproate, also known as fetal valproate syndrome, is a well-known and documented example of these conditions. Read More

Fogorv Sz 2005 Oct;98(5):199-204

Semmelweis Egyetem Parodontológia Klinika, Budapest.

The number of organ transplant patients has increased in recent years. The Cyclosporin-A (CsA) has been used at least for 20 years to control graft rejections. As many organ transplant patients also take Ca channel blocking medication this might potentiate the CsA associated gingival hyperplasia. Read More