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J Hosp Infect 2020 May 14. Epub 2020 May 14.

Isala, Laboratory of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases, Zwolle, the Netherlands.

Introduction: Aging and comorbidities such as diabetes and vascular problems contribute to the increasing occurrence of chronic wounds. Since the beginning of 2016, we saw a marked increase of Arcanobacterium haemolyticum (ARH) in cultures of chronic wounds.

Aim: To report the outbreak investigation of ARH cultured from chronic wounds and describe the implemented infection prevention measures. Read More

Rev Argent Microbiol 2020 Mar 19. Epub 2020 Mar 19.

Hospital de Pediatría "Prof. Dr. Juan P. Garrahan", Argentina.

We report the case of a twenty-year-old immunocompetent male patient presenting to the emergency room with pharyngitis and fever. Blood cultures were drawn and Arcanobacterium haemolyticum (rough biotype) was recovered. The presence of the arcanolysin gene was investigated at the molecular level and the upstream region was amplified and sequenced in order to correlate it with the smooth or rough biotype. Read More

Int J Syst Evol Microbiol 2019 Sep;69(9):2942-2947

Research Units of Discovery of Unknown Bacteria and Function, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, Beijing 100730, PR China.

Two hitherto unknown bacteria (strains 313 and 352) were recovered from the faeces of Tibetan antelopes on the Tibet-Qinghai Plateau, PR China. Cells were rod-shaped and Gram-stain-positive. The optimal growth conditions were at 37 °C and pH 7. Read More

Infection 2019 Dec 5;47(6):1055-1057. Epub 2019 Apr 5.

Department of Orthopedics, Jai Prakash Narayan Apex Trauma Centre, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, New Delhi, India.

We report a rare case of post-traumatic cutaneous diphtheria in a patient referred from a hospital in rural India. The diagnosis of cutaneous diphtheria was confirmed by the isolation of Corynebacterium diphtheriae cultured from the ulcer of the leg, along with Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus pyogenes, and Arcanobacterium haemolyticum. The patient was kept on isolation and treated with erythromycin for 14 days without antitoxin. Read More

Infect Immun 2019 03 23;87(5). Epub 2019 Apr 23.

Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center-Shreveport, Shreveport, Louisiana, USA

is an emerging human pathogen that causes pharyngitis and wound infections. A few studies have suggested that is able to induce its uptake into nonphagocytic epithelial cells, but the bacterial factors associated with host cell invasion and the host cell processes involved have yet to be studied. We investigated how two virulence factors, arcanolysin (ALN) and phospholipase D (PLD), affect the ability of the bacteria to adhere to and subsequently invade Detroit 562 pharyngeal epithelial cells. Read More

Intern Med 2019 Jun 1;58(11):1645-1647. Epub 2019 Feb 1.

Center for Global Health, Mito Kyodo General Hospital, University of Tsukuba, Japan.

An 81-year-old Japanese man with no history of diabetes mellitus was admitted to our hospital for a fever with a new ulcerative lesion on the left heel. Blood cultures on admission grew Arcanobacterium haemolyticum in aerobic bottles. He was therefore diagnosed with A. Read More

Int J Gen Med 2018 28;11:451-456. Epub 2018 Nov 28.

Reckitt Benckiser Healthcare International Ltd, Slough, Berkshire, UK,

Purpose: Pharyngitis is commonly caused by a self-limiting upper respiratory tract infection (URTI) and symptoms typically include sore throat. Antibiotics are often inappropriately used for the treatment of pharyngitis, which can contribute to antimicrobial resistance, therefore non-antibiotic treatments which have broad antiseptic effects may be more appropriate. Amylmetacresol (AMC) and 2,4-dichlorobenzyl alcohol (DCBA) are present in some antiseptic lozenges and have established benefits in providing symptomatic relief and some in vitro antiviral action. Read More

Clin Infect Dis 2019 01;68(3):482-489

Barcelona Institute for Global Health, Hospital Clínic-University of Barcelona, Spain.

Background: Treponema pallidum subsp pertenue and Haemophilus ducreyi are causative agents of cutaneous ulcer (CU) in yaws-endemic regions in the tropics. However, a significant proportion of CU patients remain polymerase chain reaction (PCR) negative for both bacterial agents. We aimed to identify potential additional etiological agents of CU in a yaws-endemic region. Read More

Toxins (Basel) 2018 05 23;10(6). Epub 2018 May 23.

Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center-Shreveport, 1501 Kings Highway, P.O. Box 33932, Shreveport, LA 71130-3932, USA.

Arcanolysin, produced by the human pathogen , is a cholesterol-dependent cytolysin. To mediate the pore-formation process, arcanolysin is secreted by and then must interact with cholesterol embedded within a host membrane. However, arcanolysin must compete with membrane components, such as the phospholipid sphingomyelin, to interact with cholesterol and form pores. Read More

Vet Microbiol 2018 Mar 6;216:45-51. Epub 2018 Feb 6.

Institute of Food Quality and Food Safety, Research Center for Emerging Infections and Zoonoses (RIZ), University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Foundation, Bünteweg 17, D-30559 Hannover, Germany.

In the present study 12 Arcanobacterium phocae strains isolated from fur animals in Finland, including foxes, minks and Finnraccoons, could successfully be identified phenotypically, by matrix-assisted laser desorption ionisation-time of flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF MS) and genotypically by sequencing 16S rDNA and phocaelysin (PHL) encoding gene phl. The PHL of all 12 A. phocae strains in the present study and reference strains A. Read More

Acute Med 2017 ;16(3):145-148

Consultant in acute medicine, Kingston Hospital, Galsworthy Road, Kingston upon Thames, KT2 7QB.

The presentation of a 'sore throat' is common and often requires only symptomatic treatment. This is the case of a 20-year-old female who presented with persistent symptoms of a sore throat. On admission she had raised inflammatory markers and a subsequent blood culture demonstrated a fusobacterium necrophorum and arcanobacterium haemolyticum bacteraemia. Read More

Infect Dis Clin Pract (Baltim Md) 2017 May;25(3):e9-e11

Department of Molecular Virology and Microbiology, Baylor College of Medicine, 1 Baylor Plaza, BCM385, Houston, TX, 77030, USA.

is an uncommon cause of pharyngitis with rash that occurs predominantly among adolescents and that has been only rarely implicated in severe or systemic infections. We report a case of subdural empyema and bacteremia due to in an adolescent woman following physical assault with trauma to the head, which required neurosurgical intervention combined with prolonged antibiotic therapy. We additionally describe the previous occurrences of culture positivity recorded over a fifteen-year period by the microbiology laboratories of the two large academic medical centers at which this patient received care, and review the epidemiology, laboratory identification, and treatment of this unusual pathogen. Read More

JMM Case Rep 2016 Feb 12;3(1):e005016. Epub 2016 Feb 12.

Department of Clinical Laboratory Science, College of Health Sciences, Catholic University of Pusan , Busan 609-757 , Korea.

Introduction: (formerly known as ) is the causative agent of sore throat and also causes skin and soft tissue infections in diabetes patients. is a Gram-positive, catalase-negative, β-haemolytic bacillus. poses a diagnostic challenge in the hospital laboratory because most coryneform bacilli are considered as normal flora or contaminants, and it is therefore difficult to differentiate from β-haemolytic streptococci by colony characteristics. Read More

Pan Afr Med J 2016 27;25:28. Epub 2016 Sep 27.

Laboratoire de Bactériologie, Université Mohammed V, Faculté de Médecine et de Pharmacie, Hôpital Militaire d'Instruction Mohammed V, Rabat, Maroc.

Arcanobacterium hemolyticum (A.haemolyticum) is a gram-positive bacillus. Man is the primary environmental reservoir. Read More

Int J Syst Evol Microbiol 2017 Jul 5;67(7):2093-2097. Epub 2017 Jul 5.

Institut für Lebensmittelqualität und -sicherheit, Stiftung Tierärztliche Hochschule Hannover, 30173 Hannover, Germany.

A taxonomic study using a polyphasic approach was performed on an unidentified Arcanobacterium-like Gram-stain-positive bacterium isolated from the genital tract of a rhinoceros. Comparative 16S rRNA gene sequencing showed that the bacterium belonged to the genus Arcanobacterium and was most closely related to the type strains of Arcanobacterium canis (98.8 % 16S rRNA gene sequence similarity), Arcanobacterium phocisimile (97. Read More

Toxicon 2015 Dec 19;108:176-80. Epub 2015 Oct 19.

Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ 85721, USA. Electronic address:

Phospholipase D (PLD) toxins from sicariid spiders, which cause disease in mammals, were recently found to convert their primary substrates, sphingomyelin and lysophosphatidylcholine, to cyclic phospholipids. Here we show that two PLD toxins from pathogenic actinobacteria and ascomycete fungi, which share distant homology with the spider toxins, also generate cyclic phospholipids. This shared function supports divergent evolution of the PLD toxins from a common ancestor and suggests the importance of cyclic phospholipids in pathogenicity. Read More

PLoS One 2015 18;10(9):e0137346. Epub 2015 Sep 18.

Department of Microbiology & Immunology, Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center, Shreveport, Louisiana, United States of America.

Arcanobacterium haemolyticum is a Gram-positive, β-hemolytic emerging human pathogen that is classified into smooth or rough biotypes. This bacterial species is also a rare pathogen of animals. Smooth biotypes possess smooth colony edges, are moderate to strong in β-hemolysis, and predominately cause wound infections. Read More

J Zoo Wildl Med 2015 Jun;46(2):427-30

A 10-yr-old female okapi (Okapia johnstoni) at the San Diego Zoo Safari Park was evaluated for intermittent malaise, inappetence, occasional cough, abdominal splinting, and licking at both flanks. Physical examination revealed tachypnea, tachycardia, and fluid sounds on thoracic auscultation. Transthoracic ultrasound showed multiple uniform, anechoic filled structures in the right and left pleural space. Read More

Ophthalmic Plast Reconstr Surg 2015 May-Jun;31(3):250

J Med Microbiol 2015 Apr 9;64(Pt 4):369-374. Epub 2015 Feb 9.

Department of Clinical Laboratory, Ehime University Hospital, Toon, Japan.

Bacteriological examinations were conducted for seven Arcanobacterium haemolyticum strains isolated from elderly patients with skin and soft-tissue infections, such as cellulitis and skin ulcers. Streptococcus dysgalactiae or Gram-positive cocci were isolated together with A. haemolyticum from all patients. Read More

Genome Biol Evol 2014 Sep 22;6(10):2625-33. Epub 2014 Sep 22.

Sichuan Key Laboratory of Conservation Biology on Endangered Wildlife, College of Life Sciences, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China

The family Actinomycetaceae comprises several important pathogens that impose serious threat to human health and cause substantial infections of economically important animals. However, the phylogeny and evolutionary dynamic of this family are poorly characterized. Here, we provide detailed description of the genome characteristics of Trueperella pyogenes, a prevalent opportunistic bacterium that belongs to the family Actinomycetaceae, and the results of comparative genomics analyses suggested that T. Read More

Ophthalmic Plast Reconstr Surg 2015 Mar-Apr;31(2):e31-3

*Oregon Health & Science University, Portland; †Craniofacial & Pediatric Plastic Surgery, Dell Children's Medical Center of Central Texas, University Medical Center at Brackenridge, Austin, Texas, U.S.A.

The facial region is infrequently affected by necrotizing infections. Orbital necrotizing infections are even rarer, seen following trauma, local skin infection, and sinusitis. The authors report a unique case of orbital necrotizing fasciitis and osteomyelitis resulting from Arcanobacterium Haemolyticum ethmoid sinusitis. Read More

BMC Res Notes 2014 Mar 29;7:196. Epub 2014 Mar 29.

Institute of Medical Microbiology, Justus-Liebig University Giessen, Schubertstrasse 81, D-35392 Giessen, Germany.

Background: Polymicrobial infections caused by combinations of different bacteria are being detected with an increasing frequency. The evidence of such complex infections is being revealed through the use of novel molecular and culture-independent methods. Considerable progress has been made in the last decade regarding the diagnostic application of such molecular techniques. Read More

Kansenshogaku Zasshi 2014 Jan;88(1):131-5

Folia Microbiol (Praha) 2014 Sep 16;59(5):369-74. Epub 2014 Feb 16.

Institut für Pharmakologie und Toxikologie, Justus-Liebig-Universität Gießen, Schubertstr 81, 35392, Gießen, Germany.

Six Arcanobacterium haemolyticum strains isolated from six patients of two hospitals in Denmark were identified phenotypically, also including matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF MS) analysis, and by genotypic methods. The latter were performed by sequencing 16S rDNA and glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase encoding gene gap and by amplification of an A. haemolyticum specific region of 16S-23S rDNA intergenic spacer region and 23S rDNA. Read More

Berl Munch Tierarztl Wochenschr 2014 Jan-Feb;127(1-2):56-60

Institut für Hygiene und Infektionskrankheiten derTiere, Justus-Liebig-Universität Giessen, Germany.

The present study was designed to characterize phenotypically and genotypically an Arcanobacterium haemolyticum strain (A. haemolyticum P646) isolated from a purulent nasal discharge of a donkey. A. Read More

Zhonghua Nei Ke Za Zhi 2013 Jan;52(1):42-5

Department of Respiratory Diseases, First Affiliated Hospital of Dalian Medical University, Dalian, China.

Objective: To emphasize the importance of the early diagnosis and treatment of Lemierre syndrome caused by Arcanobacterium haemolyticum.

Method: A case of Lemierre syndrome caused by Arcanobacterium haemolyticum and three similar reported cases were reviewed.

Results: A man complained of fever with a sore throat, and examination found an enlarged left tonsil with prominent exudate, normal blood routine test and chest radiograph. Read More

Surg Infect (Larchmt) 2013 Jun 12;14(3):322-4. Epub 2013 Apr 12.

Division of Infectious Diseases, University of California, Davis Medical Center, Sacramento, California 95817, USA.

Background: Arcanobacterium haemolyticum can cause severe systemic infections and sepsis. Thus, accurate and timely identification of the organism is essential.

Methods: Case report and review of the pertinent English-language literature. Read More

Vet Rec 2013 Feb;172(5):121-4

Abortion due to Rhizopus microsporus in a dairy herd Outbreaks of nutritional myopathy and hypovitaminosis A in calves Marked rise in diagnoses of acute fasciolosis in sheep Arcanobacterium haemolyticum arthritis diagnosed in fattening boars Infectious laryngotracheitis causes mortality in backyard poultry These are among matters discussed in the disease surveillance report for November 2012 from SAC Consulting: Veterinary Services (SAC C VS). Read More

Chin Med J (Engl) 2013 Jan;126(2):391-2

Department of Respiratory Diseases, First Affiliated Hospital of Dalian Medical University, Dalian, Liaoning 116011, China.

Chonnam Med J 2012 Dec 21;48(3):190-2. Epub 2012 Dec 21.

Department of Internal Medicine, Chonnam National University Medical School, Gwangju, Korea.

Arcanobacterium haemolyticum was isolated from the blood cultures of a previously healthy 37-year-old man who met all the criteria of Lemierre syndrome, including a primary oropharyngeal infection, evidence of thrombophlebitis of the internal jugular vein, and metastatic infections. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first case of Lemierre syndrome caused by A. haemolyticum in Korea and shows that A. Read More

Int J Syst Evol Microbiol 2013 Jun 5;63(Pt 6):2019-2024. Epub 2012 Oct 5.

Landesbetrieb Hessisches Landeslabor, 35392 Giessen, Germany.

A polyphasic taxonomic study was performed on two previously unidentified Arcanobacterium-like Gram-positive strains isolated from harbour seals. Comparative 16S rRNA gene sequencing showed that both bacteria belonged to the genus Arcanobacterium and were most closely related to Arcanobacterium haemolyticum CIP 103370(T) (98.4% 16S rRNA gene sequence similarity), A. Read More

J Med Microbiol 2012 Sep 24;61(Pt 9):1328-1329. Epub 2012 May 24.

Department of Microbiology, Tumor and Cell Biology, Division of Clinical Microbiology, Karolinska Institutet and Karolinska University Hospital, Solna, 171 76 Stockholm, Sweden.

Arcanobacterium haemolyticum is a rarely reported human pathogen but can cause wound infections in elderly patients with immunodeficiency and pharyngotonsillitis in adolescents and young adults. A. haemolyticum septicaemia originating from a wound rarely occurs and mainly affects immunocompromised patients. Read More

J Vet Diagn Invest 2011 Nov;23(6):1234-5

Laboratory Services Department, Animal Health and Veterinary Laboratories Agency, Thirsk Regional Laboratory, West House, Station Road, Thirsk, North Yorkshire YO7 1PZ, United Kingdom.

A 7.5-kg female European badger (Meles meles) was submitted under the United Kingdom Government's Wildlife Incident Investigation Scheme to the Thirsk Regional Laboratory of the Animal Health and Veterinary Laboratories Agency. Postmortem examination revealed a large, poorly encapsulated retropharyngeal abscess full of necrotic debris and pus. Read More

J Clin Microbiol 2012 May 15;50(5):1745-7. Epub 2012 Feb 15.

Department of Clinical Microbiology, Hospital Clínic, CRESIB/IDIBAPS, School of Medicine, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain.

The identification of 83 Corynebacterium, 13 Arcanobacterium haemolyticum, and 10 Rhodococcus equi strains by conventional methods (API Coryne complemented with 16S rRNA gene sequence analysis) was compared with matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization-time of flight (MALDI-TOF) mass spectrometry identification. The correlation between API and MALDI-TOF results was 89%. MALDI-TOF is a rapid and accurate system for identification of the above-mentioned microorganisms. Read More

J Infect Chemother 2012 Aug;18(4):584-6

Department of Pediatric Infectious Diseases, Ali Asghar Children Hospital, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Vahid Dastgerdi Street, Shariati Street, Tehran 1919816766, Iran.

Thyroid abscess is a rare event especially in the pediatric age group. We report a 2-year-old girl with thyroid abscess who presented with fever and an anterior painful neck mass. Culture of the aspirated fluid yielded Arcanobacterium haemolyticum, which is one of the etiologies of pharyngitis and rash in children and, especially, young adults. Read More

Vet Microbiol 2012 May 26;157(1-2):243-5. Epub 2011 Dec 26.

Institut für Pharmakologie und Toxikologie, Justus-Liebig-Universität Giessen, Frankfurter Str. 107, 35392 Giessen, Germany.

In the present study matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization-time of flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF MS) was evaluated for species identification of 98 bacteria previously classified phenotypically and genotypically to genera Arcanobacterium and Trueperella. Species identification was carried out by comparing the main spectra of each strain with the main spectra of reference strains of both genera and 3740 database entries included in the MALDI Biotyper 2.0 software package (Bruker Daltonik GmbH, Bremen, Germany). Read More

Int J Syst Evol Microbiol 2012 Sep 11;62(Pt 9):2201-2205. Epub 2011 Nov 11.

Landesbetrieb Hessisches Landeslabor, Schubert Straße 60, 35392 Giessen, Germany.

A polyphasic taxonomic study was performed on an unidentified Arcanobacterium-like Gram-stain-positive bacterium isolated from otitis externa of a dog. Comparative 16S rRNA gene sequencing showed that the bacterium belonged to the genus Arcanobacterium and was most closely related to the type strains of Arcanobacterium haemolyticum (97.2 %), Arcanobacterium hippocoleae (96. Read More

BMC Microbiol 2011 Oct 26;11:239. Epub 2011 Oct 26.

Department of Veterinary Science and Microbiology, The University of Arizona, 1117 E Lowell Street, Tucson, AZ 85721, USA.

Background: Arcanobacterium haemolyticum is an emerging human pathogen that causes pharyngitis, wound infections, and a variety of occasional invasive diseases. Since its initial discovery in 1946, this Gram positive organism has been known to have hemolytic activity, yet no hemolysin has been previously reported. A. Read More

Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis 2012 Jan 15;72(1):1-7. Epub 2011 Oct 15.

Servicio de Microbiología. Hospital Universitario Marqués de Valdecilla-IFIMAV, Santander, Spain.

The aim of this study was to assess the phenotypic and genotypic diversity of 56 Arcanobacterium haemolyticum isolates isolated from 51 patients attending primary health care centres and emergency units in the health area of Santander (Cantabria, northern Spain). Phenotypic characterization was based on morphological, biochemical, and antigenic tests. Species identification was confirmed by amplification and sequencing of the 16S rDNA gene. Read More

Mikrobiyol Bul 2011 Jul;45(3):535-40

Maltepe University Faculty of Medicine, Department of Medical Microbiology, İstanbul, Turkey.

Arcanobacterium haemolyticum, previously known as Corynebacterium haemolyticum, is a facultative anaerobic, gram-positive bacillus with negative catalase and positive CAMP inhibition test results. It may be the causative agent of about 0.5-3% of acute bacterial pharyngitis especially in children and young adults. Read More

J Microbiol Methods 2011 Sep 14;86(3):387-9. Epub 2011 Jun 14.

Department of Pediatrics, University of Minnesota Medical School, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, USA.

We developed a two-block PFGE method to study molecular variation among clinical isolates of Arcanobacterium haemolyticum, an often overlooked human pathogen. Three main macrorestriction profiles were defined among 15 isolates. PFGE was an objective method for characterizing A. Read More

Am Surg 2011 Jun;77(6):791-3

Nottingham City Hospital, Nottingham, UK.

J Glob Infect Dis 2011 Jan;3(1):92-3

Department of Microbiology, Lady Hardinge Medical College, New Delhi, India.

Clinical chorioamnionitis can result either from the ascending organisms from vagina after rupture of membranes or via the blood stream. This report describes a case of chorioamnionitis caused by Arcanobacterium haemolyticum, an unusual organism associated with this infection. A 19-year-old primigravida at 32 weeks of gestation presented with the complaints of fever, pain in the abdomen, and discharge per vaginum for the past 2 days. Read More

Ann Clin Microbiol Antimicrob 2011 May 12;10:17. Epub 2011 May 12.

Department of Microbiology, Queen's Medical Centre, Derby road, Nottingham, NG7 2UH, UK.

Arcanobacterium haemolyticum is an organism that commonly causes pharyngitis and wound infections. It does not usually cause systemic invasive disease. The organism presents a difficult diagnostic problem because the Clinical Microbiology laboratory has a propensity to view them as diphtheroid organisms of the Corynebacterium species, thus contaminants or normal flora. Read More

J Clin Microbiol 2011 Jul 27;49(7):2664-6. Epub 2011 Apr 27.

Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathobiology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada.

Between 1998 and 2007, records from 33 patients with cutaneous diphtheria from Vancouver's inner city were reviewed. Cases were associated with injection drug use and poverty. Coinfections with Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus pyogenes, and Arcanobacterium haemolyticum occurred. Read More

Med Mal Infect 2011 Jul 25;41(7):397-9. Epub 2011 Mar 25.

Stand Genomic Sci 2010 Sep 28;3(2):126-35. Epub 2010 Sep 28.

Arcanobacterium haemolyticum (ex MacLean et al. 1946) Collins et al. 1983 is the type species of the genus Arcanobacterium, which belongs to the family Actinomycetaceae. Read More

Folia Microbiol (Praha) 2010 Nov 21;55(6):666-8. Epub 2011 Jan 21.

Institut für Pharmakologie und Toxikologie, Justus-Liebig-Universität Gießen, Frankfurter Str. 107, 35392 Gießen, Germany.

An Arcanobacterium haemolyticum strain isolated from a postcastrational lesion of a horse was identified phenotypically and genotypically. The latter was performed by sequencing the 16S-23S rDNA intergenic spacer region (ISR), by amplification of the gene encoding A. haemolyticum phospholipase D, by amplification of A. Read More

BMC Microbiol 2010 Oct 25;10:270. Epub 2010 Oct 25.

Department of Veterinary Science and Microbiology, The University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ 85721, USA.

Background: Arcanobacterium haemolyticum is an emerging bacterial pathogen, causing pharyngitis and more invasive infections. This organism expresses an unusual phospholipase D (PLD), which we propose promotes bacterial pathogenesis through its action on host cell membranes. The pld gene is found on a genomic region of reduced %G + C, suggesting recent horizontal acquisition. Read More